Class 

Book. _^ 

Copyright N° 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



A Manual on the Growing of Vegetables for Home 
Use and Marketing. 



Prepared for the Classes of the School of Agriculture of the 
University of Minnesota, 

BY 

SAMUEL B. GREEN, 

Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota, 
Author of 

"Amateur Fruit Growing" and "Forestry in Minnesota." 



WITH 123 ILLUSTRATIONS. 



SEVENTH EDITION. 

REVISED. 



ST. PAUL. 
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
1905- 



LIBRARY of OONGRESS 
Two Copies rteceivcu 

MAV 3 i9UD 

Copyriiifu entry 

copy's. 



COPYRIGHT, 1901, 
By 

SAMUEL B. GREEN. 

COPYRIGHT, 1905, 
By 

SAMUEL B. GREEN. 



PREFACE. 



This book was prepared primarily for the School of Agri- 
culture of the University of Minnesota, ^here it has been used 
as a text book for four years. In this edition some changes 
have been made to bring it up to date in the matter of methods 
of culture and varieties recommended. The material has also 
been re-arranged and more attention paid to the classification 
of vegetables than in the first edition. A few other new minor 
features have also been introduced which experience seemed to 
show desirable. 

I wish to acknowledge the kind assistance received in the 
preparation of this manuscript from Prof. Harry Snyder and 
my assistant, R. S. Mackintosh. In previous editions I have 
taken pleasure, as I do now, in acknowledging the assistance 
which I have received in many ways from Dr. Otto Lugger and 
Major A. G. Wilcox, and it pains me now to have to record the 
death of both within the past year, but the memory of the many 
pleasant associations with them will always be fresh in my mind. 

Figures numbered 52, 67, 69 and 121 are from D. Landreth & 
Sons; 26, 27, 31, 32 and 92 are from W. Atlee Burpee; Nos. 22, 
23, 81 and 96 are reproduced from publications of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture; No. 5 is from Bateman Manufacturing Co.; 
Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43 were loaned by Dr. 
Lugger; Nos. 58, 61, 63, 65, 66, 106, 108, 112, 119, 120 and 122 
from various sources. All other figures are original. 

SAMUEL B. GREEN. 
St. Anthony Park, Minn., March 1, 1905. 



Note — In this edition will be found questions adapted to stiidonts of 
vegetable gardening thus making the work better suited to class-room 
use. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER 1. 

The Vegetable Garden. — Location and soil for early crops. 
Location and soil for late crops. 

Irrigation. — Cultivation and irrigation. Humus an aid to irri« 
gation. Amount of water required for irrigating different crops. 
Pumping water for irrigation. Making reservoirs. Application of 
water. Rules for applying water. Sub-irrigation. 

Rotation of Crops. — Reasons for. 

CHAPTER IL 

Manures. — Most valuable elements in manures. Direct and 
Indirect manures. Composition of vegetables. Manures and fer- 
tilizers. 

Animal Manures. — Horse manure. Hen manure. Cow and 
swine manure. Sheep manure. The manure pile. The compost 
heap. Commercial manures. Tankage. Ground blood. Ground 
bone. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate. 
Wood ashes. Kainite. Lime. Land plaster. Effect of manures 
on crops. Manures for early and late crops. Manures for legu- 
minous crops. Manuring the growing crops. Liquid manure. 

CHAPTER in. 

Garden Tillage. — Prevention and killing of weeds. Im- 
portance of not allowing weeds to go to seed. Weed seeds in 
manure for the garden. Plowing. Subsoil plowing. Ridging 
land. General cultivation of garden crops. Cultivation to de- 
velop plant food. 

Garden Implements. — Horse hoes and horse cultivators. 
Hand cultivators. Seed drills. Combination seed drills and cul- 
tivators. Markers. Scuffle attachment to hand garden cultiva- 
tors. Scuffle hoe. Plant drag. Potato diggers. Spray pumps. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Seed Sowing. — Depth to plant. Time for sowing. Sowing 
In stiff clay soils. Sowing seed with machine. Sowing seed by 
hand. Using the feet for firming the soil around seeds. Thin- 
ning. Protecting seeds against insects and birds. Transplant- 
ing. Avoid transplanting as much as possible. Conditions of suc- 
cess. Shortening the tops of plants. Firming the soil about the 
roots of plants. Tomato cans for flower pots. The Farmer's 
Kitchen Garden. — Arrangement of. 

CHAPTER V. 

Seeds and Seed Growing. — Good pedigrees in seeds. Test- 
ing seeds. Simple germinating apparatus. Curing and storing 
seeds. Changing seed. Stock seed. Seedsmen's specialties. 
Seedsmen's humbugs. Novelties. Development of varieties. — 
Rules for improving plants. Cross and self-pollination of plants. 
Mixing of varieties. Distance between varieties to prevent mix- 
ing. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Glass Structures. — Cold frames. Hotbeds. Hotbed manure. 
Fire hotbeds. A greenhouse hotbed. 

Greenhouses. — Cheap kinds of. Methods of heating. Sash 
for hotbeds and cold frames. Shutters. Mats. Ventilation and 
temperature. Watering. Soil. Boxes. Substitutes for glass. 
Shading the glass. Fifteen things to remember in connection 
with building glass strucures. 

CHAPTER VIL 

Insects Injurious to Vegetables. — Insecticides and methods 
of destroying insects. Pyrethrum. Paris green. London purple. 
Tobacco. Kerosene emulsion with soap and with milk. Carbon 
bisulphide. Catching insects by light at night. Application of 
insecticides. 

Common Garden Insects and Methods of Destroying Them. — 

Colorado Potato Beetle. Imported and Native Cabbage Worms. 
Cabbage Plusia. Wire Worms or Drill Worms. Cutworms. 
Striped Cucumber Beetle. White Grub or May Beetle. Maggots. 
Cabbage Flea Beetle. Leaf Lice or Aphis. Cabbage Lice or 
Aphis. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm. Parsley Worm or 
Celery Caterpillar. Chinch Bugs. Bean and Pea Weevil. 
Squash Vine Borer. Squash Bug. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Classification of Vegetables. — Warm and cold climate vege- 
tables. Frost tender and frost hardy vegetables. Botanical 
classification. Characteristics and directions for the cultiva- 
tion of vegetables. Mushrooms. Corn. Asparagus. Onions. 
Leeks. Garlic. Rhubarb. Beets. Swiss Chard. Spinach. 
Cabbage. Cauliflower. Radishes. Rutabaga. Turnip. Brussels 
Sprouts. Kale. Kohlrabi. Horseradish. Cress. Water Cress. 
Beans. Peas. Okra. Parsnip. Parsley. Carrot. Celery. Cel- 
ariac. Sweet Potato. Tomato. Potato. Egg Plant. Peppers. 
Strawberry Tomato. Martynia. Cucumber. Squash. Musk- 
melon. Watermelon. Pumpkin. Gourds. Lettuce. Salsify. 
Endive. Dandelion. 

Garden Herbs. — Balm. Catnip. Lavender. Peppermint. 
Sage. Sweet Basil. Sweet Marjoram. Spearmint. Summer 
Savory. Thyme. Winter Savory. Anise. Caraway. Coriander. 
Dill. Borage. Rue. 

Tables. — I. Weight of one quart of seeds and a number of 
seeds in one ounce. II. Longevity of garden seeds. III. Amount 
of seed required to sow one acre. IV. Average time required for 
garden seeds to germinate. V. Standards of Purity and Germina- 
tion of Agricultural Seeds. 

Monthly Calendar of Garden Operations, 



Vegetable Gardenings 



CHAPTER I. 

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

Location and Soil. — The land for vegetable gardening should 
be free from stones and stumps, and easily cultivated. Wet land 
should be avoided unless it can be drained at a reasonable out- 
lay; if it cannot be drained it is of little worth as scarcely any- 
thing of value can be raised on it. All land for vegetable garden- 
ing should be well drained either naturally or artificially, since 
crops on well drained land suffer less from drought as well as 
from excess of water. Drained land also gives best and most 
uniform returns from the manure applied to it. When drainage 
is lacking in the land, the raising of plants on it is so very 
much a matter of chance that in the long run it will generally 
prove unprofitable. Most of the land in cultivation is suflSciently 
drained naturally, while some land that needs no drainage when 
used for grass or grain would be greatly improved by being 
under-drained when it is to be used for some garden crops. 
Land which has a gently rolling or undulating surface with a 
southern exposure is the most desirable for general gardening 
operations, since it receives the full sunlight and allows the most 
perfect control of the water that falls upon it. When irrigation 
is to be practiced, such sloping surface aids very much in the 
distribution of the water. For a few crops, such as celery, cab- 
bage, etc., the slope makes very little difference, as fiat and 
even very moist (not wet) land is best, There is a very great 
difference in the value of northern and southern slopes for vari- 
ous crops. This difference will frequently amount to one crop 
a year where the soil is closely tilled The soil on a southern 
slope can be worked much earlier in the spring than that having 
a northern exposure, and often by proper management two crops 
may be grown in one year in such places, while on a northern 



V 



8 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

slope perhaps only one crop could be raised. Then again, such 
crops as melons and tomatoes that require a long season and 
a warm location to mature could do so on a southern slope, 
while on a northern slope they might not ripen. 

Location and Soil for Early Crops. — When the object in 
vegetable gardening is to grow very early crops, it is important 
to have quick-acting land. Such a soil contains a large amount 
of sand in its composition. Soils of this class warm up very 
quickly, and decomposition goes on very rapidly in them. They 
also give the quickest returns from manures. If such land has 
a southern slope, and, in addition, is protected from the north 
and west winds, the situation will be an ideal one for the early 
vegetable garden and for tropical plants, such as tomatoes, 
beans, corn, etc. However, land and locations of this character 
suffer most from drought, therefore every precaution should be 
taken to protect them from it. S4ndy soils are especially adapted 
to irrigation, and sometimes what were barren sands become 
very fertile when irrigated. 

Location and Soil for Late Crops. — When the intention is 
to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, etc., for marketing 
in the autumn and for crops that require but a short time to 
mature or that prefer a cool location, a good clayey loam is 
generally the best, and if it has a northern exposure so much 
the better. If obliged to use a stiff clay soil, it will be found 
to give best results if subsoiled and drained. Such land should 
be fall-plowed and left in ridges. It will also be improved if 
coarse manure is worked into it, since this has a tendency to 
make the land open and more easily worked. A retentive 
clayey loam will be more difficult to work than a sandy soil, 
but will generally withstand drought much better, although a 
somewhat sandy loam with a retentive, porous clay sub-soil 
is often considered more desirable on account of the greatei 
ease with which it is worked, and it resists drought nearly as 
well as a clayey loam if proper precautions are used in its 
management. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation is generally considered unnecessary in this sec- 
tion, since we raise fair and even abundant crops nearly every 
year without its aid, but in almost any season there are periods 



IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OP CROPS. 



9 



when if water could be applied to growing crops it would im- 
prove them. It will seldom if ever pay to irrigate ordinary 
farm crops, if it is necessary to pump the water used. In 
order to have irrigation practical for farm crops the water should 
be carried and distributed on the land by the force of grav- 
ity. It may pay to pump water to irrigate some garden crops 
if the conditions are favorable and the work is done intelli- 
gently. In this section irrigation should be used to supple- 
ment the rainfall which should ordinarily be kept from run- 
ning off the surface of the land by every possible precaution. 

Mulching the surface of the soil is practicable only around 
trees and in the case of a very few garden crops, such as 
strawberries and raspberries. The intelligent use of mulch 
on land in well known cases has caused the soil under it to 
hold an amount of water equal to thirty-three per cent more 
than was retained in soil near by not mulched, the amount in 
one case being equal to an increase of over two quarts of water 
to every cubic foot of soil, or to an increase of over 680 barrels in 
the upper one foot of soil of one acre. If this amount of water 
had been applied at the critical stage in the growth of some 
crops suffering for moisture, it might have made a success of 
what would otherwise have been a failure. Where practicable 
it is always desirable to have a good mulch on land that i3 
watered, since it retards evaporation and px^vents the surtacrt 
soil from baking. 

Cultivation of the land prevents evaporatioxi and so saves 
the moisture in it. In one instance the amount of increase 
of water in a good soil due to cultivation was equal to thirty- 
three per cent of what it contained when not cultivated. This 
increase, however, is somewhat more than was found in other 
trials, but in every instance there has been a marked increase 
in the drought resisting qualities of the soil due to continued 
cultivation. In some experiments made by Professor Levi Stock- 
bridge in 1878, it was clearly shown that on one occasion in 
eight days of very dry summer weather thorough cultivation 
of the land resulted in saving 256 barrels of water in an acre 
of heavy loam by preventing evaporation from its surface. 
These facts show the great value of cultivation as an aid in 



10 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



irrigating operations. Cultivation of the land or mulching 
should always go with irrigation. 

Humus is rotten organic matter. In the soil it increases 
its retentive qualities. On this account new land which con- 
tains much organic matter does not suffer as seriously from 
drought as that which has been cultivated for some time with- 
out manure. Likewise, land, heavily manured with rotten ma- 
nure, which is largely humus, has its drought resisting quali- 
ties increased, while the application of undecayed manure to 
the land has a directly opposite result until it has been in the 
soil long enough to become thoroughly rotted. 

Amount of Water Required for Irrigating Different Crops.— 
Sometimes a very small amount of water applied at the right 
time will make the difference between a good crop and a total 
failure, as, for instance, w^hen dry weather comes on just as 
the strawberry crop is almost ripe, when it has happened that 
so small a quantity as 600 barrels of water per acre has been 
sufficient to ripen the crop. In western Kansas it is esti- 
mated that a storage capacity of 5,000 barrels per acre in ad- 
dition to the ordinary rain supply is needed to mature a crop 
in dry seasons. In this section a storage capacity of 1,500 
barrels per acre would probably be enough to insure against 
serious injury from drought in any but very exceptionally dry 
years. Enough water to cover an acre one inch deep is termed 
an acre inch. About 900 barrels equal one acre inch. 

Pumping Water for Irrigation.—Where valuable crops are 
grown, it will sometimes pay to pump water for them. There 
are many localities in this section where a large amount of 
water may be controlled by lifting it less than thirty feet. In 
such places windmills may be successfully used for pumping 
the water, providing reservoirs of large capacity can be cheaply 
made into which water may be pumped the year around to be 
used as needed. Thresher engines, which are seldom used 
except in the late summer and fall, may sometimes be used 
to advantage for pumping water and often at very low cost. 
Gasoline engines are occasionally used in some irrigation works. 
They are very desirable, but at present the price is too high 
to warrant their general use. In putting in a pumping plant 
the pump should be put as near the water supply as possible. 



IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OP CROPS. 11 

Reservoirs should be on some elevated point. They are 
easily made by digging out the earth and puddling the bottom 
and sides with thick clay, which should be at least one foot 
in thickness and well packed when wet. A good way to pack 
it is to drive horses over it. When clay cannot be obtained 
the bottom may be made tight with a thin coating of coal tar and 
sand, but clay is preferable, and what is known as blue clay is 
generally best. Cement is liable to crack badly from frost 
and is not adapted to this purpose. Made in this way, reser- 
voirs are very cheap and easily repaired. It is important to 
have them very large where the supply of water is limited; 
where the supply is large, the reservoir may be much smaller. 

Application of Water. — Sloping land is necessary for most 
successful irrigation, as it is very difficult to apply water to 
the surface of level land. The slope should be sufficient to 
permit the water to flow quickly along its surface and yet not 
enough to cause it to wash. For irrigation purposes the rows 
should not be over 300 feet long. The best results are gener- 
ally obtained from soils having considerable sand in their com- 
position. Drifting sands may often be made to produce good 
crops by irrigating and manuring, and lands having some sand 
in their composition are much better adapted to irrigation than 
clay soils, since the latter often bake badly or become sticky 
so that they cannot be cultivated immediately after applying 
water. 

Rules for Applying Water to Land. — Water should not be 
applied unless the crop is suffering for it, but the soil should be 
cultivated thoroughly and frequently, and thus waste by evapo- 
ration may be saved. 

Cultivate at once after irrigating, if the land will permit 
of it, so that the soil will not bake; evaporation will thus be 
prevented, and water will be saved in the soil. 

Do not apply more than enough water to nicely moisten 
the land and avoid getting it water-soaked. 

Do not think that irrigation will take the place of cultiva- 
tion, for it will not, since without cultivation irrigation is sel- 
dom successful. 

Water for irrigating purposes should be somewhat warm 
when applied. Cold springs do not afford a satisfactory supply 



12 vegetajdLe gardening. 

for some crops unless fi.'st pumped into a reservoir. A tern 
perature of 60 degrees is desirable, though not always necessary 
for the best results. 

Aim to wet the roots of the plants and avoid getting water 
on the leaves. 

Wooden troughs afford the cheapest conduits for water anc 




Figure 1.— One method of irrigating crop planted in rows. 

should be used whenever practicable. Iron pipe is expensive 
and much more difficult to manage than wooden troughs. 

Sub-irrigation is a new term that refers to the application 
of water to the roots of plants by means of underground chan- 
nels, such as tile or other drains. It works best in sandy soils. 
In clayey soil the water runs too slowly through the sides of 
the tiles. Land tiles make as good channels as any for this 
purpose. They should be buried a few inches below or by the 
side of the plants to be watered, being laid level with open 
joints. Some experiments seem to show that it is a very waste- 
ful way of using water, while others have shown this^ system 
to be economical. As practiced for v/atering plants in green- 
house benches, especially for lettuce, it has given excellent 
results. 



IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 13 

ROTATION OF CROPS. 

By rotation is meant the special succession of crops grow- 
ing upon the land for a series of years. This is very desirable 
even on land in the highest state of cultivation, but it is very 
difficult to lay down exact rules to be followed. 

Reasons for Rotating Crops. — We rotate crops for at least 
six reasons. (1) To avoid insect enemies, as in the case of 
onions and turnips, which are often liable to serious insect in- 
juries when grown more than one year on the same land. Tur- 
nips are especially liable to injury from insects when grown 
in the same place successively. (2) To avoid injuries from 
fungous diseases, i. e., in case of potato and beet scab, onion and 
melon rust, corn smut, etc. (3) To increase the amount of 
humus in the soil, and for this purpose we may seed down the 
land to grass or clover. (4) To deepen the soil and add nitro- 
gen to it as well as humus, as when clover is grown on the land. 
(5) To get rid of weed seeds in the soil. (6) To use the plant 
food in the land to best advantage, since crops vary very much 
in the amount of the different elements which enter into their 
composition. Leguminous crops, like clover, peas, beans, etc., 
improve the land on which they grow, while most other crops 
exhaust the soil. Some plants excel others in their power to 
search for plant food, or to take plant food from the soil. Some 
plants feed near the surface largely, while others take their 
food mostly from a lower level. Root crops should not follow 
root crops, nor should vines follow vines for many years in suc- 
cession on the same land. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER 1. 
On Vegetable Gardening Adapted to Students and Others. 

1. What location and soil is best for early crops? 

2. What location and soil is best for late crops? 

3. Under what conditions will it pav to irrigate? 

4. When should the land be mulched? 

5. What is meant by cultivation? 

6. What is humus and how does it affect the soiP 

contain? ^^^^ ^^^'^ ^^^^ water and how many barrels does it 

8. When will it pay to pump water for irrigation? 

9. Flow may a good, small, cheap reservoir be made? 

10. What kind of land is best adapted to irrigation? 

11. Give six rules for applying water to land 

12. hat is meant by sub-irrigation? 

13. What is meant by rotation of crops? 

14. Give six reasons for rotating crops 

15. What crops improve the land on which they grow and why? 



CHAPTER II. 



MANURES. 

Most Valuable Elements in Manures. — While there are 
twelve or raore elements that enter into the composition of our 
cultivated plants, yet only nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, 
and in a few cases lime, are lacking from our agricultural soils. 
These three elements enter largely into all our cultivated crops 
and are necessary for their growth. The other elements are 
usually present in abundance. 

Humus. — While humus in itself is not a plant food, it is of 
great importance in the soil. It is formed by the decay of 
organic matter and is composed principally of carbon. It 
promotes chemical action by which plant food is set free in 
the soil, and it increases the power of the soil for holding the 
water and gases which it gives up slowly to the roots of 
plants. Rotten stable manure contains a large amount of humus- 
forming materials, which undoubtedly add very much to its 
value, and it is probably on this account that it often gives 
better returns than commercial fertilizers containing the same 
quantities of what are termed the essential elements. 

The Action of Manures in the Soil can be and generally 
is both direct and indirect. They act directly when they con- 
tain actual available plant food or when by their decay they 
yield it to the plant; they act indirectly when they start chem- 
ical action in the soil and thus set free soluble plant food in 
the soil itself. Almost all manures act in this indirect way to 
some extent. A moderate application of stable manure by its 
decomposition (which is chemical action) in. the soil has been 
known to increase the temperature of the soil by three degrees. 
Lime in itself is a plant food and is largely used by some crops. 
Most soils, however, contain it in great abundance, yet if quick 
lime be added to a soil already rich in common limestone it 
generally serves to increase growth. This is not due to the 
plant taking up more lime, but rather to the fact that the 
quick lime starts chemical action in the soil by which some 



MANURES. 



15 



of the locked-up stores of plant food are made available. The 
same may be said of unleached ashes, though it contains much 
more valuable fertilizing material than lime. Common salt also 
acts to some extent indirectly as a fertilizer, while it is of very 
little value as a plant food. 

COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, MANURES AND FERTILIZ- 
ERS. 

In the following tables is shown the amount of fertilizing 
elements required by vegetables and the amount of these ma- 
terials which is contained in the various farm manures and com- 
mercial fertilizers. These figures are from eastern United States 
and European sources. The climatic conditions in these places 
are quite different from those in many sections of the Western 
states where the actual amount of ash ingredients in plants, 
especially in dry years, may greatly exceed the amounts here 
given. The relation of these tables to one another is worthy of 
special study, since they show what the plants need and what 
the fertilizing materials supply. 

TABLE I.— Composition of Vegetables. t 



Artichokes 

Asparagus stems 

Beans, Lima , 

Beans, string ., 

Beets, red 

Cabbages , 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Chorogi, tubers 

Chorogi, whole plant .., 

Cucumbers 

Eggplant , 

Horse-radish, root , 

Kohl-rabi 

Lettuce, leaves 

Lettuce, stems 

Lettuce, whole plant 

Muskmelons, interior juice.. 

Muskmelons, pulp 

Muskmelons, pulp juice 

Muskmelons, rind 

Mustard, white 

Okra 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Peas, Canada field 

Peas, garden 

Peas, green 



Water, 



81. 
93. 



50 
96 
46 
87.23 
88,47 
90.52 
88.59 
90.82 
78.90 
78.33 
95.99 
92.93 
76.68 
91.08 
86.28 
88.46 
93.68 
92.61 
76.44 
90.53 
91.15 
84.19 
87.41 
87.55 
80.34 
12.48 
12.62 
79.93 



Ash. 



Per ct. 
0.99 
0.67 
1.69 
0.76 
1.04 
1.40 
1.02 
0.81 
1.09 
1.02 
0.46 
0.50 
1.87 
1.27 

1:71 

1.18 
1.61 
1.01 
1.49 
0.56 
0.68 
2.25 
0.74 
0.57 
1.03 
2.36 
3.11 
0.78 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Per ct. 
0.36 
0.29 



0.24 
0.38 
0.16 
0.13 
1.92 



0.16 



0.36 
0.48 



0.23 



0.14 
0.22 



3.58 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Per ct. 
0.17 
0.08 



*0.09 
*0.11 
0.09 
0.16 
0.19 



0.12 



0.07 
0.27 



*0.07 



0.04 
0.19 



0.84 



Potash 



Perct. 
0.48 
0.29 



*0.44 
*0.43 
0.51 
0.36 
0.64 



0.24 



1.16 
0.43 

♦0.37 



0.10 
0.62 



1.01 



16 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Composition of V egetables, X—iContinued.) 



Peas, small {Lathyi'us sativus), 
whole plant 

Pumpkins, flesh 

Pumpkins, rind 

Pumpkins, seeds and stringy 
matter 

Pumpkins, whole fruit 

Rhubarb, roots 

Rhubarb, stems 

Rhubarb, stems and leaves 

Rutabagas 

Spinach 

Squashes, flesh 

Squashes, rind 

.^quashes, seeds and stringy 
matter 

Squashes, whole fruit 

Sweet corn, cobs 

Sweet corn, husks 

Sweet corn, kernels 

Sweet corn, stalks 

Sweet potatoes, tubers 

Sweet potatoes, vines 

Tomatoes, fruitt 

Tomatoes, roots 

Tomatoes, vines 

Turnips 

Watermelons, juice 

Watermelons, pulp 

Watermelons, rind 

Watermelons, seeds 



Water. 



Per ct. 



93.39 
86.23 

76.86 
92.27 
74.35 
92.67 
91.67 
88.61 
92.42 
88.09 
82.00 

74.03 
94.88 
80.10 
86.19 
82.14 
80.86 
71.26 
41.55 
93.64 
73.31 
83.61 
90.46 
93.05 
91.87 
89.97 
48.37 



Ash. 



Per ct. 

5.94 
0.67 
1.36 

1.51 
0.63 
2.28 
0.94 
1.72 
1.15 
1.94 
1.72 
1.21 

1.39 
0.41 
0.59 
0.56 
0.56 
1.25 
1.00 
5.79 
0.47 
11.72 
3.00 
0.80 
0.20 
0.33 
1.24 
1.34 



Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Potash 


Per ct. 
2.50 


Per ct, 
0.59 


Per ct. 
1.99 














*0.11 
0.55 


*0.16 
0.06 


*0.09 
0.53 


0.13 
0.19 
0.49 


0.02 
0.12 
0.16 


0.36 
0.49 
0.27 




















0.21 
0.18 
0.46 
0.28 
*0.24 


0.05 
0.07 
0.07 
0.14 
*0.08 


0.22 
0.22 
0.24 
0.41 
*0.37 


0.16 
0.24 

0.18 


0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.10 


0.27 
0.29 
0.50 
0.39 





















tSugar in fruit, 3.05 per cent; acid (malic), 0.46 per cent. 
^Compiled by office of Experiment Station. 



*Wolff. 



TABLE II.— Composition of Farm Manures. 



Cattle excrement (solid, fresh). 

Cattle urine (fresh) 

Hen manure (fresh) 

Horse excrement (solid) 

Horse urine (fresh) 

Human excrement (solid) 

Human urine 

Pigeon manure (dry) , 

Poudrette (night soil) 



Mois- 
ture. 



Per ct. 



□ 60.00 



77.20 
95.90 
10.00 
50.00 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Perct. 

0.29 
0.58 
1.10 
0.44 
1.55 
1.00 
0.60 
3.20 
0.80 



Pot- 
ash. 



Per ct. 

0.10 
0.49 
0..56 
0.35 
1.50 
0.25 
0.20 
1.00 
0.30 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Perct, 
0.17 



0.85 
0.17 



1.09 
0.17 
1.90 
1.40 



Lime. 



Per ct. 



2.10 
0.80 



MANURES. 17 



Composition of Farm Manures,— (Continued) 





Mois- 
ture. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Lime. 


Solu- 
ble. 


Re- 
verted. 


Total. 


Sheep excrement 
(soUd, fresh) 


Per ct. 


Perct. 

0.55 
1.95 

0.50 

0.60 
0.43 

0.49 


Per ct. 

0.15 
2.26 

0.60 

0.13 
0.83 

0.43 


Per ct. 


Perct. 


Per ct. 
0.31 

o.or 

0.30 

0.41 

0.07 

0.32 


Per ct- 


Sheep urine (fresh) 
Stable manure 










73.27 








Swine excrement 
(solid, fresh) 








Swine urine (fresh) 
Barnyard manure 










68.87 

















TABLE IIL— Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials. 



Apatite 

Ashes (anthraicte 
coal) 

Ashes (bituminous 
coal) 

Ashes (lime kiln)... 

Ashes (wood 
ieached) 

Ashes (wood, un- 
leached) 

Bat guano 

Bone ash 

Bone black 

Bone black (dis- 
solved) 

Bonemeal 



(dis- 



Bone meal 

solved), 

Bone meal (free 

from fat) 

Bone meal (from 

glue factory)... 
Carribean guano... 

Castor pomace 

Cotton-hull ashes... 
Cotton-seed meal 

(decort) 

Cotton-seed meal 

(undecort) 

Cuba guano 

Dried blood 

Dried fi.sh 

Gas lime 

Horn and hoof 

waste 

Kainit 

Krugite ... 



15.45 

30.22 

12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 



7.50 



7.31 
9.50 



7.75 



24.27 
12.. 50 
12.75 
22.28 

10.17 
3.20 
4.82 



^.20 



4.05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 
*5.50 



7.10 

4 30 
1.67 
10.52 
7.25 



13.25 



0.10 



0.40 
1.20 



5.25 
1.31 



1.10 
22.75 



1.80 
1..50 



13.54 
8.42 



2.37 



15.40 
0.40 



1.24 



1.30 
7.60 



13.53 



1.25 



0.55 



6.50 



2.60 



36.08 

0.10 

0.40 
1.14 

1.51 

1.70 
3.80 
35.89 
28.28' 

17.00 
23.25 

17.60 

20.10 

29.90 
,26.77 
1.75 
8.85 

3.10 

3.10 
13.35 
1.91 
8.25 



18 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Composition of Commercial Fertilizing rXaterials,— (Continued.) 





Mois- 
ture 


Nitro- 
•gen. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Lime. 


Solu- 
hie. 


Re- 
verted. 


Total. 




Per ct. 

12.09 
13.32 
50.00 
60.00 
2.00 
7.60 
1.93 
1.40 

8.54 
61.50 
14.81 

2.25 


Per ct. 

10.44 
0.76 
1.10 
0.40 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 

2.07 
21.88 
0.10 
0.10 


Per ct. 


Mono Island Guano. 






7.55 


37.49 


0.15 
0.35 
51.48 




Mud (salt) 






0.90 


Muriate of potash.. 
Navassa phosphate 
Nitrate of potash... 
Nitrate of soda 












34.27 


37.45 


13.09 
15.70 

12.12 
0.85 
7.35 


45.19 














Oleomargarine re- 








0.88 
0.08 
15.30 

24.50 




Peat 


0.18 
2.65 








Peruvian guano 


3.20 


4.10 




Phosphates from 
Florida 


28.50 
20.93 

1.58 












Sewage sludge 
(precipitated).. 
Soot 


88.49 
5.54 

3.61 
63.06 

1.00 

4.75 

2.54 
10.00 

6.18 
10.00 


0.05 


0.05 
1.83 

2.04 
3,25 






0.10 






Spent tan bark 








1.61 


33.46 
1.14 




1.19 
20.50 






Sulphate of am- 
monia 








Sulphate of potash 
and magnesia... 

Sulphate of potash 
(high grade).... 


25.50 
33.40 








2.57 










6.70 
3.71 
2.35 


0.30 


5.10 


11.80 
0.65 
0.70 






5.02 
8.20 
3.92 
*1.20 


2.22 
4.20 
















15.80 


6.50 









11 









*Sometimes as high as 5 per cent, 

fNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per 
cent carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum 
and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. 



Animal Manures.— Manure from the same animals may 
vary greatly in quality according to the kind of food and the 
condition and age of the animals from which it comes. Fat 
animals fed on food rich in nitrogen (grains) produce the best 
manures. Young growing animals that are fed on poor food, 
such as straw, swale hay, etc., produce very inferior manure. 
The manure from young growing animals or from milking cows 
is much inferior to that from fat steers, since, in the case of 



MANURES. 



19 



the young animals, a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid is required to build up the animal body. In the case of 
the milking cow a large amount of nitrogen is required for 
the production of the casein of the milk, while very little of 
the nitrogen in the food is retained in the body of the fatten- 
ing animal. The fats, oils and starchy materials which ani- 
mals use largely are of no value as manures. The nitrogen, 
potash and phosphorus are thrown off by the fat animal in the 
waste products. Manures rich in nitrogen ferment most rap- 
idly, other things being equal. The urine is generally rich in 
nitrogen, and since all it contains is soluble it is of more 
value than the solid excrements of animals, and special effort 
should be made to save it. 

The Heating of Manures and other organic material is gen- 
erally due to the presence of ferments which are minute organ- 
isms that break down the composition of the materials in 
which they grow and produce chemical changes that result in 
the formation of heat. They are nearly allied to the yeast that is 
used in bread-making. Fire fanged is a term applied to ma- 
nure which has heated to a very high temperature without suf- 
ficient moisture and has dried out. It is generally white in 
color and has lost much of its texture, and parts of it may 
appear to have been burned to ashes. When in this condition 
manure is of little value, for it has lost much if not all of its 
nitrogen and all the ferments which it contained are destroyed. 
And it is probable that the ferments which are added to soils 
by manure are often of much importance to them. 

Horse Manure is loose and light, and ferments very quickly. 
On this account it is especially valuable for early spring crops, 
as it makes the soil loose, thus permitting the air to easily 
penetrate it, while by its rapid fermentation it warms the land. 
It is valuable to mix with cow and swine manure on account 
of its hastening fermentation. On account of its heating quali- 
ties it is used to warm hotbeds. 

Hen Manure is one of the richest manures formed by 
any of our domestic animals, for the reason that poultry live 
on highly concentrated foods and the liquid and solid excre- 
ments are voided together. It heats quite readily and vio- 
lently and should be used very sparingly and with caution, 



20 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



since if put in contact with the roots or stems of plants it is 
very liable to burn them. It should be handled with great care 
and be kept dry. If wet it ferments and parts with its nitrogen 
in the form of ammonia gas, which is readily perceptible to 
the nose. For the same reason it should not be mixed with 
lime or wood ashes unless used at once. It acts very quickly 
and on this account is valuable for early crops or to apply 
during the growth of a crop when the available manure in the 
land appears to have been exhausted. It may be composted with 
dry peat or muck when it is more safely applied than if clear 
and there is less danger of loss from heating. Twenty to 
thirty bushels of hen manure is generally considered sufficient 
for one acre when used with stable manure. 

Cow and Swine Manures are rather slow in action, conse- 
quently they are not as desirable for early crops as horse 
manure, while they are excellent for late crops. For this latter 
purpose they are often better than horse manure. If they are 
mixed with horse manure they ferment very rapidly. 

Sheep Manure is a very concentrated manure which heats 
rapidly. It is one of the best farm manures. 

Mixing Manures. — It may often be a good plan to mix 
the different kinds of animal manures for general application, 
as in this way all seem to be improved. Hen manure is an ex- 
ception and, as a rule, should be applied separately. Lime, wood 
ashes or other material of an alkaline nature should never be 
mixed with stable manure of any kind unless a considerable 
amount of loam, peat or other material is added to absorb the 
ammonia, which is always liberated when nitrogenous and alka- 
line substances are thus mixed. It is a good plan to mix 
ground bone, tankage and other slow acting fertilizers with 
heating stable manure, as by so doing the plant food they 
contain is made more available and the stable manure is 
greatly improved in quality. 

The Manure Pile. — If early garden crops are to be grown, 
it is necessary to have fine, well rotted manure, and this makes 
the manure pile necessary. It should be placed so that as little 
waste as possible will occur from leaching by rains. When a 
manure pile is to remain in one place for a considerable time 
it should be made upon a bed of leaves, peat, loam, rotted sods 



MANURE. 21 

or other absorbent, about one foot in thickness, which will 
catch and i-etain any fertilizing material that may leach through 
the pile. If practicable, the pile should be made where it will 
be protected from the sun and drying winds. The height of 
the pile should depend somewhat on the kind of manure and 
the season of the year when it is made. Manure that will heat 
readily should be piled about six feet deep. When the pile is 
quite warm the manure should be turned over. This operation 
should be performed very thoroughly as often as the pile gets 
very hot. All the lumps should be broken up and the whole 
pile turned to the bottom of the Ded on which it is placed. The 
absorbents of the bed should be mixed evenly throughout the 
pile and the cold manure from the outside be put on the inside 
of the pile so that it may heat the more rapidly. If the pile ap- 
pears dry on the inside water or, what is better, the urine 
from the stable should be added to assist fermentation, as this 
cannot take place satisfactorily in dry manure, and the lack of 
water may result in serious loss. The number of times a ma- 
nure pile should be turned over will depend on the crop to 
which it is to be applied and the kind and condition of the 
manure. This is a matter which must be left to the good 
judgment of the individual manager, but some of the factors 
bearing on this will be found discussed farther on. 

The Compost Heap can be made a prolific source of home 
made manure. Every farm and garden should have one of 
sufficiently large proportion to take care of all refuse organic 
material about the place. It should be made about as follows: 
Select a place handy to get at but where there is no standng 
water and put down first a bed one foot deep of old sods or 
muck and on this pile all the refuse material as it collects in 
various places. It may consist of old. straw, leaves, an occa- 
sional load of heating manure, rotten vegetables, etc. This 
should be turned over occasionally, by hand if necessary, but 
the best plan is to have the compost heap in a hog yard and 
to it haul manure as it collects near the stables. If manure 
is piled upon a good bed of rotten sod it will not lose much 
by leaching, nor will it lose anything by heating if a sufficient 
number of hogs have the run of it to keep it well worked up. 

Commercial Manures. — By commercial manures is meant 



22 VEGETABLE uaRDEXIXG. 

those manures which are commonly sold by the trade. When of 
a high price they are generally of a guaranteed composition 
and they should be bought at a valuation based on the amount 
of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which they contain in 
condition available to the roots of the plants. The most available 
the form in which these materials exist in the fertilizer, the 
more valuable it is generally considered. Most of the older states 
require a guaranteed analysis to accompany tbe packages in 
which the fertilizers are sold and exercise some supervision over 
the business. Among the most common of this class of fertil- 
izers are the following: 

Tankage. — This is the refuse product from slaughtering 
establishments, which after being relieved of its fat is brought 
to drjmess and ground. It is very rich in nitrogen and phos- 
phoric acid, but contains very little potash. Most of the nitro- 
gen and phosphoric acid which it contains is available to the 
roots of plants. It is probably the cheapest source of nitrogen 
and phosphoric acid to be found in the western states. It varies 
considerably in composition, and this may sometimes be ac- 
counted for by the fact that in some establishments the blood 
is separated from the other offal, thus reducing the percentage 
of nitrogen in the tankage. It is rather a slow acting fertilizer. 
Tankage may be safely used in quantities of less than 1,000 
pounds per acre if applied broadcast and worked into the soil. 
Four hundred pounds per acre is generally considered a good 
application. It may be safely used in these quantities around 
growing plants of cabbage, corn, lettuce, etc., provided it is 
spread out evenly and does not come in contact with the roots 
of the plants. 

Ground Blood is very rich in nitrogen and quite difficult 
to dry thoroughly. If it is at all moist it is likely to heat badly. 
It is a quick acting fertilizer, and is seldom used without being 
mixed with other materials. 

Ground Bones are always rich in phosphoric acid, but 
ground fresh bones are better than dry bones since in addition 
to phosphoric acid they have quite a large percentage of nitro- 
gen, which amount is very small in bones that are old and dry. 
It is always best to break or grind the bones that are to be 
used on the land and in many cases to then mix them with fer- 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



23 



meriting stable manure. Ground bone is said to be a lasting 
fertilizer because its effect can be seen for several years. If 
bones are burned the nitrogen is wasted. If fresh bones are 
mixed with unleached wood ashes they will be made soft so they 
can be easily broken up. It is generally applied in much the 
same way and for the same purposes as tankage. 

Nitrate of Soda, called also Chili saltpeter, is imported 
from Chili. It looks like common salt and contains about 16 
per cent of nitrogen that is perfectly soluble and in form most 
available for the plant. On this account only very small quan- 
tities should be applied at one time, because if not taken up 
by the plant it may be washed deep into the soil out of reach 
of the roots. It is especially desirable for early leaf crops such 
as early spinach, cabbage and lettuce, and to apply when a crop 
comes to a standstill. It acts with wonderful quickness — almost 
like magic. It may be applied several times to the growing 
crop at intervals of two weeks, using from 75 to 100 pounds per 
acre at each application. It may be sown near the hills if ap- 
plied to cabbage, but for spinach or similar crops it should be 




Figure 2. — Spinach plants grown on land rich in rotten stable manure. The 
larg-er plant received in addition to the stable manure nitrate of soda at the 
rate of one hundred and fifty pounds per acre. 



24 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

sown broadcast when the plants are perfectly dry or during a 
hard rain. If it sticks to the leaves it is liable to burn them. 
If sown during a hard rain it is quickly dissolved and washed 
to the roots of the plants without injury to the leaves. It is 
expensive and should never be used when a cheaper supply of 
nitrogenous manure will do just as well. It may occasionally be 
used to good advantage in water at the rate of one-half an 
ounce of nitrate of soda to one gallon of water. Such a solution 
will not injure the foliage and is of sufficient strength. 

The use of very large quantities of nitrate of soda on the 
land has been found to make it necessary to continue using it 
in large quantities, while if used at the rate given it is not 
followed by such consequences. The supposed reason for this 
is that so much nitric acid in the soil destroys the nitric acid- 
forming ferments, and these must be slowly replenished before 
the soil is able to continue yielding its ordinary supply of 
nitrogen. 

Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product from gas works and 
contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. It does not act as 
quickly as nitrate of soda, but for late crops, to be applied dur- 
ing warm weather, it is one of the best sources of nitrogen. 

Superphosphate is made by treating ground bone or nodu- 
lar phosphate with sulphuric acid to render the phosphates 
soluble. It is rich in phosphoric acid, and some kinds contain a 
considerable quantity of nitrogen. They vary much in quality. 
The better kinds are generally used at the rate of about 400 
pounds per acre. 

Wood Ashes is rich in potash and a valuable fertilizer in 
many cases provided it has not been leached; if it has been 
leached it is practically worthless as a fertilizer, Ashes from 
hard wood is much more valuable than that from soft wood 
on account of its containing much more potash. Ashes is one 
of the best fertilizers for fruit trees and plants. About twenty 
bushels of unleached hard wood ashes is generally sufficient for 
one acre, but much more may be safely used. 

Kainit. — Potash is also applied to the land in the form of 
German Potash salts, a grade of which, known as kainit, is 
very commonly used as a fertilizer. These salts are more or lessi 
mixed with common table salt and other impurities and form 



MANURES. 



25 



a cheap and very useful supply of potash. They are gener- 
ally sold on a valuation based on the percentage of actual 
potash they contain. Kainit contains 13 per cent of potash 
which is more than twice as much as there is in ordinary un- 
leached wood ashes. From 200 to 600 pounds of kainit is gen- 
erally applied per acre. 

Lime is found in abundance in most western soils, but 
burned limestone, whether as freshly slacked or as quick lime, 
may often be used to advantage in small quantities when large 
amounts of stable manure have been used upon the land for a 
number of years. It should not be used alone, because it ex- 
hausts the soil. 

Land Plaster is a sulphate of lime. It is not a direct 
fertilizer, and its method of action is not exactly known. It 
may occasionally be used to advantage for leguminous crops, 
such as clover, beans, peas, etc., in applications of from 200 to 
600 pounds per acre spread broadcast. 

There is Little Need for Commercial Fertilizers at present 
in most of the western states and they should never be used until 
the home sources of manure have been exhausted, and then they 
should be used to supplement rather than replace farm manures, 
and as aids in close cultivation of gardens. They are generally 
expens-ive, and results from their use here have not been as 
satisfactory as in the eastern states. Only the more common 
kinds to be met with here have been mentioned. 

Those who use commercial fertilizers of the better kinds 
for the first time are very likely to use too much and seriously 
injure the crops to which they are applied. It is much better 
to use too little than too much, and to experiment along this 
line in a small and inexpensive way to begin with. 

Effect of Manure on Crops. — The proportion of the various 
plant foods used by dirferent crops varies considerably, some 
using a larger amount of one element and some of another. 
Their visible effects w^hen in excess are also quite different. 
Garden plants that are grown especially for their foliage use 
large quantities of nitrogen and require it in order to be per- 
fectly healthy, and seed producing plants use large quantities of 
phosphoric acid and potash. Where nitrogen in a soluble form 
is very abundant so as to be in excess in the soil it will be 



26 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

found that the plants growing on it are noted for their dark 
green color and rank leaf and stem growth, and for late ma- 
turity of fruit and seed. In the case of small grain, it may 
result in such a weak, soft, succulent growth that the stems 
cannot support themselves and they become "lodged," and such 
growth may be gained without an increase in the yield of grain. 
In the case of lawns a soft, thick sod is made; in the case of 
spinach, cabbage and other leaf crops, vigorous, large plants 
result; while tree and bush fruits, under such conditions, make 
a soft, late-maturing growth that easily winter kills. 

On the contrary, when soluble potash and phosphoric acid 
are in excess in the soil, the plants will have a tendency to pro- 
duce a large amount of seed and fruit in proportion to straw or 
wood and to mature early. This is a desirable condition for 
heaviest grain and seed crops. In the case of bush and tree 
fruits, it conduces to fruitfulness, early maturity of wood and 
hardiness. These qualities will be most evident if the nitrogen 
is under a normal quantity in the soil. 

It must not be understood from this that any of these ele- 
ments are hurtful, for they a'~e absolutely necessary in proper 
proportions to secure best results; but these effects follow when 
they are greatly in excess. 

Except in few instances, fresh manure in the soil is not 
beneficial, and its presence prevents close cultivation and causes 
the land to dry out very quickly. Such manure does not afford 
plant food for some time, since it must first be thoroughly de- 
cayed before it is of any value to plants. Rotten manure has 
much of its plant food in an available condition. 

Manure for Early and Late Crops. — Much more manure and 
more thoroughly rotted manure is required for early than for 
late crops. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that early in 
the season fermentation goes on very slowly, and unless plant 
food is supplied in a quickly available form it is of no immedi- 
ate use to the plant. On account of the rapid fermentation 
which goes on in the soil later in the season, crops that ma- 
ture later than the middle of the summer may be able to use 
the plant food that was locked up in fresh manure in the 
spring. For instance, the results from fresh cow manure may 
be almost nothing if applied in the spring to a crop of early 



MANURES. 



27 



cabbage or spinach, while for a late crop of cabbage or for 
corn it may answer very well. Where an abundance of well- 
rotted manure cannot be obtained in the spring and it becomes 
necessary to use partially rotted manure for an early crop, it 
is a good plan to use nitrate of soda or some other quick acting 
fertilizer to afford plant food until the manure has rotted. 

Manures for Leguminous Crops. — Leguminous crops, such as 
peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc., do not need as much nitro- 
genous manure as most other crops that are so rich in nitro- 
gen, since their presence encourages the growth of nitric acid 
ferments in the soil. Such crops improve the land on which 
they grow by increasing the amount of nitrogen in it, and in 
this- respect they are different from all other garden crops, and 
are sometimes referred to as nitrogen producers and other 
crops as nitrogen consumers. 

Animal Manure should generally be spread evenly on the 
land and then be thinly covered with the soil; yet for some 
crops it may sometimes be most desirable to apply the manure 
in the hill or furrow. The amount that should be applied per 
acre varies with the crop, soil and manure, so no exact rule can 
be given. For a midsummer or late maturing crop, probably 
eight cords of well rotted stable manure per acre would be suf- 
ficient in almost any case, and much less will sometimes be 
enough, while for an early crop twice as much rotted manure 
might be used to advantage. Well rotted manure should be 
covered with soil soon after it is applied to the land, or it may 
waste by drying. If it is put on frozen land it may waste by 
the soluble parts being washed away. But in the case of fresh 
animal manures there is little chance of loss in these ways. 

The effect of the application of animal manures to the land 
will remain apparent for several years. It is generally consid- 
ered safe to estimate that not more than one-third the full value 
of these manures is taken up by the crop growing on the land 
the year it is applied. 

Manure the Growing Crop. — Sometimes a crop comes to a 
standstill on account of having exhausted the available ferti- 
lizing material in the soil. In such cases it may be a good 
plan to fertilize the growing crop with hen manure, nitrate of 
soda or other quick acting fertilizer and cultivate the land at 



28 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

once. This may be done in many cases by applying such ma- 
terials to the crop during a hard rain or in a dry time by 
plowing a furrow near the crop and placing the fertilizer in the 
furrow. But in any case it should be cultivated into the soil so 
as to become well mixed through it, and much care must be 
taken to prevent the dry fertilizer from coming in contact with 
the roots of the plants. 

Rotating Manures. — It is a good plan to occasionally 
change the manures applied to land, i. e. when stable manure has 
been largely used for some years apply some commercial ferti- 
lizer, lime or land plaster, and when commercial fertilizers have 
been used for some time recourse should be had to stable 
manure. 

Liquid Manure. — Liquid manure is sometimes used for en- 
couraging the growth of plants. It should never be maae from 
fresh manure, but from that which is thoroughly rotted. Urine 
may be used as a liquid manure if well decomposed, but it 
should always be used with great caution and never applied to 
plants if fresh or undiluted. Cow and horse manure are gener- 
ally preferred for making liquid manure. The vessel in which 
it is to be made should be one-third full of manure and filled 
up with water. The whole should then be stirred and allowed 
to settle. The clear water is then used for watering plants. 

Liquid fertilizer is also made by dissolving nitrate of soda 
in water as mentioned under that head. Ammonia is sometimes 
used in very small quantities in water applied to plants, espe- 
eially to house plants, with good results. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER 11. 

1. What elements are usually lacking in the soil ? 

2. What is the difference between direct and indirect fertilizers? 

3. AVhy are manures from young, growing animals less valuable 
than from older animals? 

4. What is the heating of manures due to? 

5. To what extent are the different farm manures valuable for 
farm crops ? 

G. What is the result of mixing alkaline substances with manure? 

7. A\'hat is the result of mixing commercial fertilizers with 
maniii-es? 

8. TTow should a manure pile be cared for? 

9. What is a compost heap and how made? 

10. AVhat are commercial fertilizers and in what way are they 
valuable ? 

n. What is tankage? Nitrate of soda? Kaunt? And what ele- 
ments do Ihpy contain? 

12. A\']iat part of the plant does each of the elements, nitrogen, 
potash and uhosulu i-oiis affect when in excess in the soil? 

13. AMiat kind of manure should be used for early crops and why? 

14. M'hat kind of manure should be used for late crops and why? 

15. IIow should commercial fertilizers be applied to the land? 
10, IIow should animal manure be applied to the land? 



CHAPTER III. 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 

By the proper cultivation of the garden we accomplish 
three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not 
shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the 
plants which we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is 
brought into best condition to resist drought, that is, into the 
best condition to avail itself to the utmost of the stores of 
water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water 
from the surface soil. (3) The inert plant food in the soil is 
made soluble by cnemical action, which is increased by the 
cultivation of the soil. 

Prevention and Killing of Weeds. — The methods best 
adapted for keeping weeds out of the garden are many and 
varied. They depend much upon the condition and kind of soil 
in which the weeds grow, and upon the kind of crop and the 
habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in 
making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the har- 
rowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the 
planting of the seed, to kill the young w^eeds. If this is done 
thoroughly the weeds do not have any better chance than the 
crop. If this is not done the weeds will be ahead of the 
crop in growth, and if started ever so little when the crop is 
planted the result generally is that the crop is seriously over- 
grown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. 

When garden seeds that require a long time to germinate 
are sown, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with 
an ordinary line-toothed rake even before the crop appears above 
the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to dis- 
turb the seeds. This is an easy matter in case of the larger 
garden seeds, while it would be impossible with the finer seeds, 
as they are invariably planted shallow. When the seed is 
sown with a drill the line of the row may be plainly seen even 
before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cul- 



30 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



tivating in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as car- 
rotS; onions, beets and parsnips, which are quite delicate when 
young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden culti- 
vator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate it with a horse 
implement and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. 
Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse im- 
plement now in use as with the best hand implements. Careful 
early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since if the weeds 
are removed when they are young the work of weeding is small. 
If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a 
very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early 
stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a 
question whether to remove them or to plow under the whole 
crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter 
alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, 
early cultivation is of the greatest value in breaking up the 
crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of 
plants and which seriously interferes with their growth. Like 
all surface cultivation it is also an aid in the conservation of 
moisture in the soil. 

Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to go to Seed. — A com- 
mon source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds 
that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing 
season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gath- 
ered. To some persons it often seems a small matter to allow a 
few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other 
kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should 
be the rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economi- 
cal in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and 
saves much useless expense if the weeds that are going to seed 
are destroyed. If the preventives for weeds here suggested are 
closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum 
and will often be unnecessary with any crop. 

Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden. — While the dis- 
cussion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the 
special object of this chapter, yet some reference to the subject 
is quite necessary in considering the subject of weed eradica- 
tion. The people of this section have not yet learned the great 
value of barnyard manure and its proper preparation for best 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 



31 



results in the soil. This is a subject of vast importance and 
one that in the future will receive far more thought than at 
present. The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and 
contains many weed seeds and is a fruitful source of weed in- 
fection. If the manure intended for the garden contains the 
seeds of weeds it should be piled up and allowed to ferment until 
the whole mass is thoroughly rotted, which process will kill the 
weed seeds in it. It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure 
in the garden, and it should only be applied in this condition 
when free from weeds and then only for some late maturing 
ciops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the 
crops need it. 

Plowing. — In the western states, where the summers are 
often very dry, vegetable land should generally be plowed in 
the autumn so that the subsoil may become sufficiently com- 
pacted by spring to readily transmit the subsoil moisture to the 
surface. Such treatment, by forming a dust blanket, retards 
evaporation from the land during dry autumns and dry winters 
when there is no snow on the ground. Fall plowing also puts 
the land in the best shape for the action of the elements and 
the development of plant food, and may ue a means of killing 
very many cut worms, white grubs and other insects that winter 
over in the soil. If plowing is left until spring in this climate 
it should be done as early as practicable and not so deep as 
when done in the fall. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of 
the upper soil loose and not sufficiently compact to enable the 
subsoil water to easily reach the surface roots — but where irri- 
gation is practiced there is not much difference in this respect. 
The soil for the garden should ordinarily be plowed to a depth 
of about eight inches, yet in the case of some light soils half 
this depth may be preferable. 

Subsoil Plowing or Subsoiling, are terms applied to the 
loosening of the land just below where the plow ordinarily goes. 
In doing this, the subsoil is not brought to the surface, but 
a special plow is used which follows an ordinary plow. This 
has no mold board, but has a good point and shoe, and these 
loosen the subsoil without raising it. This process may be 
hurtful or of no value to subsoils already so loose as to permit 
the roots of plants to readily push into them, and should not 



32 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

be applied to them, but for some of the very stiff subsoils of 
this section it is a great improvement, since it deepens the till 
able land so that the roots of the plants can push more readily 
into it. This loosening of the stiff subsoil also puts it into just 
the right condition for receiving and holding water. It is thus 
sometimes a great help in carrying plants over droughty periods. 
Subsoiling gives best results when performed in the autumn. 
If done in the spring and the operation is followed by dry 
weather, the land is apt to be left too loose to hold moisture 
well that year and consequently will suffer from drought. It is 
seldom, even on stiff land, that subsoiling is needed more thar. 




Figure 3. — Root of onion plant with earth washed off. The roots went 
tc the depth of eighteen inches in the earth. 

once in four or five years, for after being once loosened the 
roots of plants penetrate it and keep it open. The roots of our 
garden crops push deeper into the land than is generally known; 
even the onion, which is, perhaps, as shallow^ rooted as any gar- 
den crop grown, often pushes its roots to a depth of eighteen 
inches in good soil, while corn roots have been followed to a 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 33 

depth of four feet. It is probable that in good land almost anj^ of 
our garden crops will send their roots eighteen or more inches 
deep. 

Ridging the Land. — If the land is liable to be too wet for 
planting in early spring, it is sometimes a good practice in plow- 
ing it to turn several furrows back to back and thus leave the 
land in ridges over winter. If these ridges or "lands" are made 
fifteen or twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted 
in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is 
often best to open the furrows again in the spring and thus leave 
the land level. This method of treatment permits of working 



Fig-ure 4 — Cross section of ridged laud. 

the land much earlier in the spring than it otherwise could be 
worked if plowed flat. It also leaves the soil in very good shape 
for the action of frost on its particles during the vvinter. For 
early crops on fiat or heavy soils it is a most desirable treat- 
ment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the 
spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation; if the land is 
thus turned back in the spring, it may be left too loose. 
But admitting these objections, even then there are often cases 
where this treatment would be very desirable. It should be 
borne in mind, too, in cultivating the garden that while the 
soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich nor too deep, 
nor can the subscU. if not of too impervious a nature, be too 
compact, and yet it must be loose enough to permit of the 
roots entering it and the water percolating through it. 

General Cultivation of Garden Crops. — The methods to be 
pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops vary some- 
what according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is 
very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but 
a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important 
part in this section is to so fit the soil that it may best with- 



34 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



stand drought. This is accomplished by frequent shallow culti- 
vation during the period of drought. The first implements to use 
in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand 
are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth close to 
the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings 
are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some 
little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, 
until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked with- 
out endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants 
with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever 
be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain 
that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to 
the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper 
ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of 
drought results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on 
the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from pass- 
ing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow dust blanket, say 
three inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact sub- 
soil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil in 




Figure 5. — Iron Age horse hoe. 



the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. 
At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by 
the blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper sub- 
soil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots 
of the crop. Loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. 
During the growth of a crop the surface soil should never be left 
long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or 
artificial watering. 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 35 

Cultivation to Develop Plant Food. — Nearly all land in this 
section contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor 
Snyder has shown that our average wheat-producing soils con- 
tain enough nitrogen to raise one hundred and twenty-five suc- 
cessive crops of wheat. But only a very little of this material 
is ever at one time in a condition in which the plant can take 
it up; nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and 
fermentation in the soil, plant food is set free. This is increased 
and made more complete by admitting air into the soil. Hence 
the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air 
and water to enter and thus develop plant food. This, also, is 
an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where 
the soil can be kept moist through the summer deep spring 
plowing is an advantage as it opens the soil to the air; but on 
account of the liability to injury from droughts to soils thus 
worked the practice is generally a poor one for this section. 




Fig-ure 6 —Planet Jr. fine tooth cultivator. 

GARDEN IMPLEMENIS. 
Implements, such as plows, harrows, etc., used for prepar- 
ing the land for ordinary farm crops are also used in fitting 
the land for garden crops. In addition, however. thei;;e are a 



36 VEGETABLE aARDENING. 

number of tools and implements which are not commonly used 
in growing the farm crops. These maj^ be roughly classed as 
follows : 

Horse Hoes and Horse Cultivators are much alike in general 
construction, but each is adapted to special purposes, and both 
are very desirable. The horse hoes are for use when the land 
is very hard and weedy; they may also be used for ridging 
the land and drawing the earth from or harrowing it towards 
the plants. For this purpose they have various attachments. 

The cultivators are especially for the purpose of stirring the 
surface soil and ping a dust blanket; they do not remove 
weeds that are well established. They throw very little soil side- 
ways and on this account may be used for cultivating very 
close to small plants. Among the best of these are those 
known under the names of Planet Jr. and Iron Age. 




Figure 7.— Opening- and closing furrows with hand garden cuUivators. 

Hand Cultivators. — There are many good forms of hand cul- 
tivators on the market, and they are a necessity in every garden 
containing over a quarter of an acre. They are made so as to 
be adjusted to various widths betv\^een the rows, and kinds 
called ''straddle cultivators" are made so as to cut on two sides 
of a row of plants at one time, which is often quite an advantage. 
They also have various attachments for special purposes. Among 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 37 

the best of these are Jewel wheel hoe, New Universal wheel hoe, 
Gem garden cultivator and the several kinds manufactured by 
the Planet Jr. Co. 

Seed Drills. — These are necessary in every garden. There 
are many good kinds offered by dealers. Among the best are 
the New Model drill, Planet Jr. Hill-Dropping drill and Mat 
thews drill. 

Combined Seed Drills and Cultivators. — These are very eco- 
nomical and useful implements for a small garden; for a large 
garden it is important to have the seed drill and cultivator sep- 




Fig-ure 8.— Garden drills. (1) A. H. Mathew8. (2) Planet Jr. combined drill. 
(2) Mathews combined drill. (4) :New Model drill. (5) Planet Jr. Hill 
Dropping- drill. 



arate, but in a small garden these combined machines can be 
used to good advantage, and thereby make a saving in first cost. 
Among the best of these is the combination drill and cultivator 
made by the Ames Plow Co., of Boston, Mass., and the Planet 
Jr. combined drill and cultivator. 




Figure 9. — A simple garden mniker. 



38 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Marker. — The illustration shows a good form of a marker 
for the garden. It is easily made by any one who is handy with 
toni^ and is usea for marking out rows. 





Fig"ure 10. — Common wooden 
dibber. 



Flg-ure 11.— Improved fiat 
steel dibber. 



Dibbers are generally made from a crooked stick shod with 
iron and are very useful in transplanting (Pig. 10). A better 
form made of steel is shown in figure 11. 

Scuffle Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators. — Fig. 11 

shows two sets of implements designed to be attached to the 



7 r 



1 



Fisrure 1?.— Home made attach- 
mitUs f(jr g-arden cultivators. 



Fig-ure 13.— Scuffle hce. 



ordinary wheel cultivators which will work close up to the 
young plants so as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of 
the soil, and will be found very useful in many places. They 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 39 

should be made out of tool steel and any good blacksmith can 
make them. The length of blades may be made to suit the work. 

The Scuffle Hoe, shown in Pig. 13, is an excellent old-fash- 
ioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in 
early spring in the garden. Besides, it is very cheap and simple 
and can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recom- 
mended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large 
gardens, but in small gardens it may be used for the work of 
shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the 
soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation. 




Fiofiire 14. — Plank drag" for smoothing' the surface of land. 



Plank Drag or Smoothing Board. — The form of this is clear- 
ly shown in Fig. 14. It is used for crushing lumpy soil and 
smoothing off and levelling the land preparatory to seed sowing 
or planting and will be found very useful. It can be made by 
any one. The planks are two by ten inches on the ends and 
eight feet long, lapped two inches and nailed. These are 
strengthened by two six-inch cleats securely bolted on. It is 
drawn by a chain fastened at the front corners. 

Potato Diggers. — Of the cheaper forms of potato diggers, 
probably the HallocK Improved is the most perfect. It does very 
good work, and where not over five acres of potatoes are to 
be dug it is probably all that is needed. Where the potato is 
raised on a large scale, however, it is generally desirable to 
use an elevating digger. Of these the Hoover and the Dowden 
are probably the best to be had. They both work on the same 
principle. 

Spray Pumps. — Almost every farmer and gardener needs a 
good spray pump for applying Paris green to potatoes and 
vines and for spraying trees, vines, etc., with fungicides or in- 
secticides. For this purpose some form of the knapsack spray 



40 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



pump is most desirable where the work to be done is not very 
extensive, ior applying these subtances on a large scale some 
special apparatus is needed, and there are many kinds offered 
by manufacturers. In Fig. 15 is shown the barrel spray pump, 
which has been found most convenient at the Minnesota Experi- 
ment Station for general work about the grounds, such as 
spraying trees of different kinds where the knapsack sprayer is 




Figure 15.— Barrel spray pump, showing cone shaped strainer to the left. 

insufficient. The barrel is fastened to a wooden frame and 
may be placed m a wagon or on a stone boat when it is to be 
used. 

The essential parts are a good hardwood barrel, such as a 
linseed oil barrel mounted on and securely fastened to a light 
framework of oak. At one end of the barrel is mounted a 
powerful force pump with attachments capable of throwing two 



GARDEN TILLAGE. 



41 



or three fine strong sprays at one time. The liquid in ihe barrel 
is kept agitated by a small stream of water passing through a 
one-fourth inch pipe, having a one-sixteenth inch wide opening 
near the feed p^pe of the pump, in the bottom of the barrel. 
On one end of the barrel is shown a cone shaped strainer which 
is much the best form to use. There are many styles of spray 
nozzles on the market. For general use the McGowen, Vermorel 
or Bordeaux are best. 

The lower end of the feed pipe is covered with a fine 
brass screen. In the center of the side of the barrel is an open- 
ing eight inches in diameter with a tight fitting cover. This is so 
large that the barrel may be easily cleaned. The whole expense 
of making this machine was as follows: One linseed oil bar- 
rel, $1; pump, $6.50; 50 feet of one-half inch hose, $3; strainer, 
$1.50; two nozzles, $1.25; bolts, etc., 50 cents. Total cost, not 
including labor, $13.75. 

In buying machinery it is well to regard with suspicion 
those that are very complicated, as the simplest is generally the 
most durable in the end. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER ill. 

1. What three things are accomplished by ciiltivation? 

2. How and why is it important that weeds should be prevented 
from growing in the garden? 

.3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fall and spring 
plowing? 

4. What is meant by sub-soil plowing and when does it give best 
results ? 

5. AYhat is the object of ridging the land and when is it prac- 
ticable? 

6. How does cultivation develop plant food? 

7. What tools and machines are necessary for successful garden- 
ing and for what purpose is each one used? 



CHAPTER IV. 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING FARMER'S KITCHEN 

GARDEN. 

For the Successful Germination of Seed in the land it 

should be placed so as to have a reasonable amount of heat, 
moisture and air. To secure these conditions in practice, the 
seed should be imbedded in mellow soil, and this packed around 
it just firm enough to bring it into actual contact with and 
make sure capillary action in ine soil. If the soil is left loose 
over and around the seed, capillary action cannot continue, and 
the seed is liable to dry out unless the season is very wet; on 
the other hand, the soil must not be allowed to become too com- 
pact over the seed, or the young seedling will not be able to push 
through it. No matter how carefully the sowing may have been 
done, the successful germination of the seed is largely dependent 
upon the condition of the ground. Unless the seed is carefully 
and properly placed and covered, the crop cannot get a good start 
no matter how well the land has been prepared or how good 
the seed is. Seed will not sprout in the absence of air, and on 
this account when deeply buried some weed seeds may retain 
their germinating power for many years. Cases are on record of 
yellow mustard seeds germinating after remaining in the land 
for eighteen years. Very frequently, on plowing land that has 
not been stirred for a long time, the weeds of certain kinds are 
very abundant, showing that they must have been in the soil a 
long time, but could not germinate away from the air. 

Depth to Plant. — Most of the common, smaller garden seeds 
are planted one inch deep; celery and some other fine seeds 
cannot be planted nearly so deep. Peas and corn are generally 
planted from two to three inches deep. Peas, however, are some- 
times planted as deep as six inches. These matters will be 
found referred to under their respective heads. 

Always Sow In Freshly Stirred Ground, as the seed Is far 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 



43 



more liable to get a good start in it than in soil that has lain 
untilled long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the 
seeds are planted immediately after cultivation has been given 
and while the soil is still moist, the weeds will hardly get the 
start of the crop planted if reasonable care is used. In fact, 
following this rule will generally insure success as long as there 
is life in the seed and moisture in the soil. Again, it is preferable 
to sow seeds immediately after a rain rather than just before it 
comes, since in the case of the finer seeds the crust which forms 
immediately after a rain may be so compact that the young 
seedlings cannot push through. When a crust thus forms over 
seeds it is sometimes a good plan to go over the land before the 
crust is very compact and break it up with rakes, but this should 
be done in a most careful manner so as not to disturb the seeds. 
If a crust forms over fine seeds, such as celery, tobacco and 
others, it is a good plan to keep the crust moist, at least, until 
the seeds have pushed through it. Soil that is much dried out in 
midsummer is often quite an obstacle to the ready germina- 
tion of seed sown at that time, but if the seed is sown shortly 
after the ground is plowed and somewhat deeper than it is 
generally sown, in the early spring and care is taken to firm 
the earth very carefully immediately after sowing, the seed will 
generally come up very quickly at this season. But the land 
should not be worked for seed sowing or for any other purpose 
when very wet and sticky, as seeds cannot be properly planted 
in soil in such condition. 

The Time for Sowing the various seeds varies greatly and 
will be founnd referred to separately under the several heads. 
Some seeds, such as spinach, onion, lettuce and radish may be 
sown as soon r.s the ground can be worked, while the seed 
of such tropical plants as corn, cucumber and squash should not 
be sown until the ground is well warmed. The early sown 
hardier seeds are often frozen up in the ground and, perhaps, 
covered with snow without injury; in fact, a covering of snow 
seems to help seeds of the hardy kinds to grow. 

Sowing in Stiff Clay Soils. — It is comparatively easy to make 
seeds germinate in sand, sandy loam, muck or soil rich in humus, 
provided they contain a reasonable amount of moisture, but in 
stiff clay soils this is often quite a different matter, as the land 



44 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



becomes crusted over so completely as to prevent the smaller 
seedlings from pushing through. For such land it is desirable to 
use rather more seed than would be needed in more porous soil 
for the reason that while a few plants could not push up the 
crusted surface yet the many can do so; and while thick seed- 
ing increases the total cost of seed, yet the certainty of thus 
securing a full stand is so great an advantage as to well repay 
this additional outlay and the expense for thinning, if it has to 
be done at all, is about the same for thick as for thin seeding. 

Sowing Seed With iVIachine. — When the soil is prepared for 
best work with a garden drill it is generally in the best condition 
for the germination of seeds. The whole surface should be 
fine, mellow and even. There are only one or two garden seeds 
that cannot readily be sown with an3^ of the half dozen good 
garden drills that are offered in the market. Garden drills when 
properly used will sow and cover seed much more uniformly than 
it can possibly be sown and covered by hand, and they are a 
necessity in any well-managed garden. It is of the utmost im- 
portance to have straight rows in the garden, for they are more 
economical of space than crooked rows and are more perfectly 
cultivated with the wheel hoes and cultivator, besides, crooked 
rows are unsightly and slovenly. It is generally desirable in 
using a garden drill to mark off the first row with a line to get 
it straight. If this is done to begin with the subsequent rov/s 
may be kept parallel by using the marker always found on such 
machines, providing constant care is used. Some growers 
prefer to mark out all the rows with a marker and then run the 
seed sower in the marks, but for a careful workman this is 
useless labor. Seed drills are made with a point to open fur- 
rows, a coverer for filling in after the drill, a wheel for compact- 
ing the soil on the seed and a marker for the next row. To use 
a garden seed drill most successfully requires good judgment, 
but a little careful experimenting will soon enable any one ac- 
customed to tools to handle these most useful implements to good 
advantage. Sometimes it is desirable to sow seed when the 
ground is so wet that it is not safe to firm the soil over it. 
When such is the case the rear wheel is removed in sowing. 
In other cases when it is desirable to firm the soil more com- 
pactly, the press wheel may be used for this purpose, by going 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 



45 



over the rows a second time. It is a good plan in doing this 
to remove the drill point or else tip the machine until the 
point is off the ground. In the case of a few seeds that are 
rather delicate about germinating, it is a good plan to sow the 
rows a second time with the seed drill and thus mix the seed 
up with the soil. This method puts in a large amount of seed, 
leaves the seed at various depths, and some of it is sure to 
grow. 

Sowing Seed by Hand. — When only a very small quantity of 
seed is to be sown it is often best to sow it by hand. When this 
is the plan the rows are made by the garden maker and the 
seed distributed in them evenly by hand. The rows are then 
covered by the soil being drawn into them with a rake and are 
firmed by passing over the seed with the feet. If the soil is 
dry it cannot be made too firm; if moist, care must be used 
to prevent packing it too hard. In the case of very fine seed 
sown in dry weather, many devices are used to bring about 
germination such as watering, shading the soil with boards, 
covering the earth with cloths and the like. 

Using the Feet for Firming the Soil Around the Seeds. — 

Many seeds are lost from the failure to properly firm the soil 
over those sown during dry weather. Many devices have been 
suggested and used for securing this desirable condition, but 
for general garden purposes no method or implement ever used 
can vie with the proper use of the feet for this purpose. While 
this matter is referred to elsewhere, it is put under this special 
head to call attention to this useful fiict. Peter Henderson was 
the first to call attention to the importance of this method, and 
describes it as follows: "After plowing, harrowing and leveling 
the land smoothly, lines are drawn by the 'markers,' which 
make furrows about two inches deep and a foot apart. After 
the man who sows the seed follows another who, with the ball 
of his right foot, presses down his full weight on every inch 
of soil where the seed has been sown; the rows are then 
slightly levelled longitudinally with the rake, a light roller is 
passed over them and the work is done." Those who have 
practiced this method know it gives most excellent results. In 
my own practice, in sowing seed in dry weather, even with a 



46 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



seed drill which has a wheel for Srming the soil, I have fre- 
quently, and to advantage, walked the rows with the heel of one 
foot close to and in front of the toe of the otber, pressing 
down on the row. 

Thinning. — It is generally best to sow the seed of most gar- 
den vegetables much more thickly than the plants should stand 
when mature. This is done to make sure of having enough 
plants to stock the land, and it is a good practice. It is im- 
portant, also, to let every young plant in the garden have room 
enough for perfect development, and this can only be secured, 
where thick seeding is practiced, by thinning out. It is a very 
general fault of beginners in gardening that they try to grow 
too many plants on their land. This is a common mistake 
and is no better in result than permitting weeds to grow. Every 
plant in excess of what can properly mature on the land is in its 
effect a weed and should be treated as such. In the home gar- 
den, where the thinnings are valuable, as in the case of beets, 
lettuce, etc., the work of thinning need not be done all at once 
but as the plants need room. In the market garden it is best 
to thin out the full distance at one time. Do not allow the 
seedlings to get drawn and spindling before thinning, but do 
it while they are young and before they crowd one another. 
The proper distances between plants seem very large when the 
plants are small, but it must be remembered that later on any- 
thing less than the proper distance injures the crop. One must 
have determination enough to throw away many nice plants in 
order to make room for those that are to mature. It is better 
to give too much than too little room to plants. 

Protection to Newly Planted Seeds against insects and 
birds may often be given by slightly moistening them and then 
stirring in red lead until all the seeds are thoroughly coatei. 
The seed should be dried before sowing. 

Crows and Gophers May be Kept From Eating Corn by coat- 
ing it with coal tar as follows: Wet the corn with hot water 
and drain off all surplus. Spread it out about four inches deep 
on the floor of a warm room and sprinkle it with hot coal tar 
using about a tablespoonful to a half bushel of corn and stir 
thoroughly until every kernel has a thin coat of tar on it. Then 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 



47 



dry the corn by coating it with dry ground plaster or other fine 
absorbent. This treatment does not seem to hinder germination. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Avoid transplanting as much as possible. — Whatever may 
be said of its merits elsewhere does not apply in this section, 
since the dry weather so common here in the season when 
transplanting is done often makes the operation unsuccessful. 
Undoubtedly one of the reasons why transplanted plants some- 
times give better results than seedlings allowed to grow where 
the seed is sown, is that they are allowed more room to develop 
in, but if seedlings that are not moved are given the proper room 
to develop they are just as good and generally far superior to 
those that are transplanted. Transplanting, as a rule, is an in- 
jury to plants and yet it is a necessary operation in the growing 
of some of our most valuable vegetables. 




Pig-ure 16.— A box of young- lettuce plauts after being transplanted from the seec^ 
box. These plauts may be moved to the open g-round or to hotbeds or cold 
frames as soon as they crowd one another. This is a convenient way to grow 
plants in dwelling-houses and in front of windows. This style of box is 
often referred tu as a "flat.'* 

Success in Transplanting is dependent on a variety of con 

ditions. In moist weather the setting of plants in the open 

ground is a very simple operation and any one can succeed with 

it without much effort, but during dry weather the gardener's 

skill is taxed to the utmost to move plants successfully. One ot 

the most important elements for success in transplanting is a 



^8 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



supply of first-class stocky plants that have not been crowdea 
in the seed bed. Such plants make success reasonably certain. 
A most important requirement in any case is that the soil be 
moist and not wet and sticky. If it is very dry it must be 
watered or failure will be a sure result. 

Shortening the Tops of Plants. — It is a good plan to shorten 
the tops of cabbage, celery, cauliflower and similar plants when 
they are to be moved. This may be done by twisting or cutting 
off a third or even one-half of the tops. If the plants have ex- 
cessively long roots it is a good plan to shorten them enough 
to permit of their being handled easily. 




Figure 17. — 1. — Cabbage plant with long stem set deep. 2 — Cabbage 
plant with top twisted off before planting. 3 — Cabbage plant 
wrapped in manilla paper to protect from cut worms. 

The Digging of Plants should be done carefully and every 
precaution taken to get good roots. If the bed is very dry the 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 49 



soil should be thoroughly wet before digging so that the small 
roots will not be broken in separating the plants. The best 
time of day for transplanting is generally after 4 p. m., as after 
that time the moisture in the air increases rapidly and the 
plants have the cool night air in which to recover before being 
subjected to the intense rays of the sun. Of course if the 
weather is cloudy the plants may be set out at any time of the 
day. If a little shade can be provided for the newly set plants 
so much the better. This may consist of boxes, boards slightly 
raised from the ground, shingles, inverted flower pots, paper bags, 




Figure 18. — Tomato plants grown in a compartment box to facilitate 
transplanting. Such boxes can be bought for a very low price and 
are very convenient aids for transplanting- many kinds of plants. 
They are especially desirable when plants are to be sold at retail. 

a handful of green grass, strawberry boxes or similar material 
that will protect the plants from the fierce rays of the sun. 

Firming the soil about the roots is fully as important as 
firming the soil over the seeds and for the same reasons. It 
should be so firmly and closely packed that the plants cannot 
be pulled up without considerable effort. The drier the soil 



50 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



the greater the necessity for packing it firmly about the roots. 
If the soil is wet and inclined to pack hard it should receive only 
moderate pressure until somewhat dried out. The firming is gen- 
erally done by pressing with a dibber or the ball of the foot 
against the soil on one side of the roots of the plant. When the 
transplanting is finished it is a good plan to give the plants 
a good hoeing at once, drawing a little loose, dry soil around 
them to act as mulch and prevent evaporation. The holes for 
the plants are generally made with a dibber (Fig. 10 or 11.) A 
spade is often used for this pur- 
pose and such plants as small on- 
ions are most conveniently set in I 
small furrows made with a wheel | 
hoe. In every case, however, the 
plants should be set a little deeper 
than they grew in the seed bed and ^^^8', 
in the case of spindling tomato, | } 
cabbage and j I 

some other I ~ I 



figure 17. 



Fig-ure 19.— Transplantitig- aided by the Balbridg-e transplanter, which takes up 
a ball of earth with each plant. The illustration shows a box of strawberry 
plants just taken up and ready for plantinjr out. In planting- out the holes 
are made with the same implement. There are several other similar 
implements for the same purpose. 

Hardening off the Plants. — Hardening off is a term used to 
denote the checking of the growth of plants in such a v/ay as to 
cause their tissues to become firm and hard. It is very important 
to have the plants accustomed to cold weather when they are 
transplanted to the open ground, or they may be killed by a frost 
that otherwise would do them no harm. Thjs is true of the 



plants it is 
a good plan 
to bend the 
stems and 
bury a large 
part of them 
in the soil 
as shown in 




SEED GOWING AND TRANSPLANT 



51 



cauliflower, celery and of course of all our native frost tender 
trees and many other plants. When cabbage plants are properly 
hardened they take on a dull blue color that at once indicates 
their condition to one acquainted with their peculiarities. This 
hardening off of the plants is accomplished by gradually subject- 
ing them to a lower temperature than that in which they grow 
freely or by drying them a little, and, finally, thus nearly check- 
ing their growth. The result is a sort of ripening up of the 
tissues of the plants and, in consequence, they will stand great 
hardship. 

Tomato Cans are very convenient substitutes for flower pots 
when plants are grown for transplanting. The cover on the 
end opened may be melted off and a half inch hole made in the 




Figure 20.— Use of tomato cans as an aid in transplanting. A box of 
plants in the cans, ready for removal to the field and one can 
opened, showing the ball of roots. The cans are held together by 
wire twisted aroimd them. 

bottom for drainage. Another way to use them is to melt all 
the joints and use the body of the can by tying it together with 
a piece of wire. Thus prepared the tins may be set in the hot- 
bed or cold frame and filled with earth into which the s^ed or 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



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rigure 21. — Plan for farmer's kitchen garden. 



SEED SOWIXG AND TRANSPLANTING. 



the plants may be placed. When the time comes for planting 
into the open ground the tine Yvith the plants in them may be 
lifted with a trowel and placed in boxes, to be carried to the 
field where the plants are easily placed in the ground. The 
tins may also be set around the plans on top of the ground 
to protect them from the sun and wind. (See Fig. 20.) 

FARMER'S KITCHEN GARDEN. 

When Properly Conducted the kitchen garden should be the 
most profitable part of the farm. Too often its confined area 
and the laborious methods employed in its management makes 
the labor of cultivating it out of all proportion to the returns. 
Instead of confining the garden to a small area, it is better to 
enclose one or two acres of good rich land with a good wind- 
break of some kind so that it will make a garden plot twice as 
long as wide. Leave a headland in grass about fifteen feet wide 
all around as good crops cannot be grown next to a windbreak. 
The rows should run the long way of the land, somewhat as 
shown in figure 21. If the garden is surrounded by a fence it is 
found a good plan to have the part at the ends of the rows made 
of movable panels, so they may be removed when cultivating. 

The Arrangement of a vegetable garden in the manner 
shown in figure 21 makes it large enough for practicing some- 
thing of a rotation of crops in it and permits of hand labor being 
reduced to a minimum by the use of horse implements. The 
land should be cultivated flat, except for a few special crops 
such as celery. There is no advantage to be gained from hilling 
up around plants and it is a laborious process that can be dis- 
pensed with as well as not. When irrigation cannot be prac- 
ticed it is important to have such crops as celery and late cab- 
bage on moist soil, but for general gardening purposes a porous 
clay soil overlaid with a sandy loam is best, although a good 
clay loam will do very well when properly cultivated. Light 
sandy soils, especially those that are underlaid with sand or 
gravel, are too liable to injury from drought to be reliable for 
general garden operations. The garden should be near the 
house, so as to be easily accessible. 

In planning the garden it is important to put all the peren- 
nial crops together, and so arrange the other crops that those 



54 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

that grow best in rows of the same width will come together. 
The accompanying figure shows one plan by which this may be 
done; it also provides for a part of the garden to be kept in 
clover, to be broken up about once in three or four years and 
used for vegetables in alternation with that shown laid out in 
rows, which part should then be seeded down for a while. This 
Is a very desirable feature of this plan. 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IV. 

1. What three conditions are necessary for the successful germina- 
tion of seeds? 

2. How deep should garden seeds be planted and what should be 
the condition of the soil? 

3. What are the advantages of sowing seed with seed drills? 

4. How should seed be cared for after sowing? 

5. What is meant by thinning? Transplanting? 

6. Why should transplanting be avoided ? 

7. What care should be taken of plants after transplanting? 

8. How are plants hardened off? 

9. Draw a plan of a kitchen garden showing arrangement of dif- 
ferent fruits and vegetables. 



CHAPTER V. 



SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. DEVELOPMENT OP VARIE. 

TIES. 

Good pedigrees in seeds are of the utmost importance in 
order to grow good crops. No single factor that enters into pro- 
duction of a crop is more important. Where many kinds of 
plants are grown it is better and cheaper as a rule to depend on 
some careful seed grower for seeds than to go to the expense of 
raising them, although it may be best to raise a few of the more 
important kinds of seeds for which one's conditions are best 
adapted. When one makes a specialty of crops like onions, cab- 
bage and some other vegetables, it is often advantageous to raise 
the seed oneself, since their purity and pedigree are then known 
and no risk is taken about it. 

Some seeds can be grown to better advantage in one section 
than in another. For instance, cauliflower seed cannot be raised 
profitably in many parts of the United States, but near Puget 
Sound and in a few other places in this country it can be raised 
to good advantage. Most of the cauliflower seed used in this 
country is still imported from southern Europe. As a general 
rule, however, the seeds raised in one*s own vicinity or in a 
similar climate elsewhere are best to plant if they are properly 
selected. Experience seems to show that seed grown in cold 
climates generally produces an earlier crop than seed grown in 
warm sections. 

Testing Seeds. — No matter how carefully our seeds may 
have been raised or who the person is from whom we received 
them it may save much trouble and loss to test them before 
sowing. This may be done by sowing them in a box of fine 
loam kept at a temperature of from 60 to 70 degrees. The 
temperature of an ordinary living room is about right. For 
this purpose use a box about four inches deep and the size ol 
a soap box; sow the seed in shallow drills and cover the bo5 



V 



56 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



with grass to prevent rapid evaporation. One hundred seed 
should be counted out just as they come, and be sown. By count- 
ing the seedlings the per cent of germination of the seed is 
easily obtained. 

A Simple Germinating Apparatus. — A simple method of test- 
ing seed is as follows: — Take two plates and in one of therri 




Figure 22. — Simple device for seed testing (open). 



place a folded cloth, woolen flannel is preferable, since it must 
remain moist for a long time, but any cloth will do. The cloth 
should be free from dye stuffs since they may contain injurious 
chemicals. Wet the cloth, pressing out the surplus water, leav- 
ing it very damp, but not soaked. Place the counted seeds be- 
tween its folds and mark plainly with a pencil on a piece of 
paper the number of seeds put in and the date. Then cover with 
the second plate, as shown in figure 23. Plenty of air will get in 




Figure 23. — Simple device for seed testing (closed). 

between the plates, and the upper one will prevent evaporation. 
The temperature should average as recommended. Common 
newspaper or wrapping paper may take the place of the cloth, 
but requires much more attention. 



SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 



57 



Sometimes seeds that barely germinate under the excep- 
tionally good conditions that exist in a sitting room or green- 
house will not grow readily when planted outdoors, so that in 
testing seeds it is very important to note the vigor of the sprouts. 
Seeds that start strongly in the house may be safely planted at 
their proper season outdoors, while those that start only weak 
sprouts indoors may be worthless for outdoor planting. An in- 
stance bearing on this occurred a few years ago at Chester, 
N. Y., where an onion grower planted seeds three years old 
which germinated fairly well in his conservatory but failed to 
grow outdoors, while fresher onion seed sown at the same time 
grew perfectly. 

The Curing and Storing of Seeds are matters of much im- 
portance and greatly influence their germinating qualities. 
Seeds should be thoroughly ventilated while being cured, or 
they will mould or sprout, either of which seriously injures their 
value. Seeds of some kinds will sprout several times before 
entirely losing their germinating qualities, but they lose much of 
their vitality, even by once sprouting. Moulded seeds may some- 
times retain their vitality unimpaired, but if to be offered for 
sale their dark color is objectionable, for it must always be re- 
garded as an evidence of neglect in curing. It is important also 
to prevent seeds, especially tropical seeds as those of melons, 
squashes, corn, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., from being frozen un- 
til fully dry. The freezing of green or half cured seeds in- 
jures their vitality and often destroys it. This is well known in 
the case of corn where the seed taken from an ordinary crib in 
the spring often fails to grow while seed corn from the same crop 
properly cured in a dry v/arm room grows perfectly. 

Seeds are much influenced by the temperature and humidity 
of the place in which they are kept. A dry place is absolutely 
necessary for successfully keeping garden seeds, and if warm 
so much the better for tropical seeds The temperature and con- 
dition of a good living room are almost ideal for storing all kinds 
of garden seeds. Most if not all our garden seeds are unimpair- 
ed by even severe freezing while perfectly dry. In a moist place 
garden seeds lose their germinating qualities much quicker than 
when they are kept dry. 

Changing Seed. — There are locations so well adapted to cer- 



58 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

tain particular crops that some varieties seem to lose nothing 
of their pristine vigor and productiveness when grown there for 
many years, or they may be greatly improved in such locations; 
but, as a rule it is a good plan to change seed occasionally and 
it often results in increased productiveness. This sems to be 
a fact while the reason for it is not so plain. 

Stock Seed. — When seed raising is a large business it is 
out of the question to have all the specimens planted, perfect 
in every respect, but nothing should be planted except it is near 
the desired type. Each year enough perfect specimens, or those 
closely approximating perfection, should be selected to raise the 
seed for the grower's use the following season. In this way the 
quality of the grower's seed stock is kept up and without such 
care the stock of seed is liable to seriously deteriorate. Seed 
so selected and improved from year to year is termed stock 
seed. 

Seedsmen's Specialties. — Most seed growers and dealers have 
some few kinds of seed in which they are especially interested. 
These they select with more than ordinary care. It is always 
desirable to order seed of our specialties from those making 
a specialty of our favorite kinds unless we raise them ourselves. 
To secure the best it is well to order early in the season. 

Seedsmen's Humbugs. — Almost without exception every 
dealer in seeds sells humbugs, that is, worthless or very inferior 
varieties. If he is honest he offers them simply because his 
customers want them. If he is dishonest he is very apt to mis- 
represent and praise them in order to make customers pay a big 
profit. 

Novelties. — It is desirable to test novelties in seeds and 
plants, but this should be done cautiously and, as a rule, it is 
best not to be in too great haste to try new things. It is the 
general experience of growers that not more than one in ten 
of the novelties in seeds, fruits and plants is any better than 
those generally cultivated. In the history of the Minnesota 
Experiment Station the average of desirable seed novelties has 
been even less than this. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIETIES. 
There are laws that govern heredity and descent in plants 



SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 



59 



as well as in animals, and ty intelligent selection and breeding 
one may greatly improve or even originate new varieties of 
vegetable as well as of other plants. The seed stock of desirable 
new or improved varieties may often be sold at profitable prices, 
or by retaining the sole ownership of such new or improved 
kinds, one may perhaps raise crops that have highly esteemed 
qualities as to size, shape, color, flavor, hardiness, season ot 
maturity or other features, and so command an advanced price. 
Thus a grower may sometimes be well rewarded for his care 
and attention in improving his specialties, but careful study and 
persistence is necessary to success and few persons are keen 
enough in their powers of observation, to succeed in this line 
of work. 

There is constant tendency for cultivated plants to vary 
widely from the original form, though this feature may not mani- 
fest itself for many generations after cultivation has com- 
menced. The higher the state of cultivation to which a plant 
is subjected, the higher are tlie chances of its producing new 
features. In nature plants grow under fixed conditions, so they do 
not vary much. V/hen a plant once commences to vary from the 
original type, the changes ofttimes come very rapidly, and the 
possibilities are endless. Thus from a wild plant tv/o or more 
feet high with only a few leaves has been developed (1) the 
modern cabbage of (a) the wrinkled, (b) the smooth, (c) the 
red-leaved, and (d) the many ornamental kinds; (2) Brussels 
sprouts with numerous small cabbage heads on a stem two or 
more feet high; (3) caulifiowers, in which the infiorescence 
becomes thick and fieshy; (4) the various kinds of kale; and (5) 
cow cabbage, which in the Jersey Islands has been known to 
^row to the height of sixteen feet and strong enough for rafters 
cf cow sheds. The many varieties of garden and field plants 
are conclusive evidence of the variation of plants under cultiva- 
tion. 

All of our valua'ble garden vegetables are the result of al- 
most endless care in selection and in a few cases of artificial 
as well as chance crossing. They must he regarded as artificial 
productions having a constant tendency to revert to the inferior 
wild state, which we must constantly try to overcome if their 
desirable qualities are to be maintained. 



60 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



It is necessary for the most successful dreedinng of plants 
to have in vieiv a well defined purpose and in selecting seed not 
to vary the ideal standard of excellence sought, for such varia- 
tion increases the difficulty of fixing desired characteristics. 

It is found to be quite a general law obtaining among plants 
that the qualities of the parent are much more potent and thus 
more liahle to he transmitted than some especially desirable 
qualities of a few individual fruits, which may occur on a plant 
otherwise defective. For instance, Liivingstone, who has done 
much to improve the tomato, selected seed for fifteen years from 
the best tomatoes that approached most nearly in size and other 
qualities the best modern tomatoes without noting much im- 
provement. He says, *'I was then no nearer the goal than 
when I started. Such stock seed would reproduce every trace 
of their ancestry, viz: thin fleshed, rough, undesirable fruits." 
It finally occurred to him to select from the special merits of 
the plants as a whole instead of from the best fruits without re- 
gard to the plants on which they grew. Improvement then came 
easily and rapidly and in a few years he obtained the Paragon, 
Acme and Perfection, varieties which were vastly superior to 
and have entirely supplanted the old varieties of tomatoes. 
Again, in selecting seed corn it is more important to save seed 
from plants having ears approaching the desired size of cob, ker- 
nel, etc., rather than to select the largest kernels alone or to 
select from ears after they have been pulled. 

When it is desired to hasten the ripening period of a variety, 
only the seed from the earliest maturing specimens from a plant 
having the largest number of early specimens should be planted. 
In order to fix late maturing qualities, seed should he saved 
from the late maturing fruits on plants possessing these feat- 
ures to the greatest extent. 

The continued selection of any seed from inferior specimens 
results in the fixing of the poorer qualities even more surely 
than the selection of seed from the better plants results in im- 
provement. By judicious selection the cabbage has sometimes 
been changed from a biennial to an annual producing no head 
at all but going to seed the first year. When cabbage has been 
grown for several generations from stem sprouts and not from 



SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 



61 



head sprouts the effect has sometimes been to lengthen the 
stem at the expense of the head, until the seed stock becomes run 
out entirely and is in effect no longer true modern cabbage seed, 
since it has partly reverted to the original type. An instance of 
this occurred in a neighborhood in Nova Scotia where, for the 
sake of econom,y for a number of years cabbage seed was grown 
by cutting off the heads and planting out the stumps only until 
the stems became nearly two feet long and the heads not much 
bigger than twice the size of a man's fist. 

The practice of soioing the seed from plants remaining in 
the garden after the hest specimens have deen gathered for 
home use, as often happens, is a very poor one. Under such 
treatment there is a very general tendency for the stock to 
degenerate. Where seed is to be saved in a mixed garden, a few 
hills of plants should be allowed to go to seed for this special 
purpose, without being picked at all. It is very important to 
save seed from well ripened fruits Very immature seeds will 
often grow but they give a weak though perhaps very early 
maturing plant and are very liable to disease. According to 
Professor Arthur, it is not the slightly unripe seeds that give a 
noticeable increase in earliness but very unripe seeds gathered 
from fruit (tomatoes) scarcely of full size and still very green. 
Such seeds weigh scarcely more than two-thirds as much as 
those fully ripe; they grow readily but lack constitutional vigor. 
Professor E. S. Goff has made a great number of experiments 
along this line and remarks that the increase in earliness in 
tomatoes following the use of very immature seeds, "is accom- 
panied by a marked decrease in the vigor of the plant and in the 
size, firmness and keeping quality of the fruit.'* 

A few years of careful observation and experience in follow- 
ing out these principles in the breeding of plants with a special 
object in view, will convince the most skeptical of the wonderful 
power which man possesses to adapt plants to his needs. 

Cross and Self-pollination of Plants— The fiowers of plants 
are said to be either ^elf-pollenized or crossed. By self-pollina- 
tion is meant the pollination of the female organ (pistil) 
by the male element (pollen) of the same fiower or, in some 
cases of the same plant but different flowers as in corn and 



62 MONTHLY CALENDAR. 

squashes, which have two kinds of flowers. By crossing or 
cross-pollination is meant the pollinization of the female organ 
by pollen from another plant. The crossing of different varie- 
ties generally gives increased vigor in the progeny, but its 
effect is variable and may result in the loss as well as in the 
increase of their desirable qualities. Most of our cultivated 
plants are crossed by natural processes. The crossing of differ- 
ent seed stocks of the same varieties of plants is generally a 
great advantage, since it generally results in increased vigor 
without loss of desirable qualities. Seeds from self-pollenized 
flowers are not as productive as crossed flowers. Darwin 
found that cabbage plants from seeds that had been crossed 
produced nearly three times the weight produced by self-pollen- 
ized seeds. In the case of Indian corn, experiments made at the 
Illinois Experiment Station show that while cross-fertilization 
is not necessary, it is very desirable. Corn grown from crossed 
seed in nearly all cases was clearly increased in size as the 
result of crossing. ^'Plants grown from self-fertilized seed corn 
were in most cases notably inferior in size and vigor to the 
plants grown from hand crossed seed or from seed simply select- 
ed which was probably naturally crossed." "One plat from self- 
fertilized seed had nearly half the stalks deformed in such a 
manner that instead of standing up straight they turned off at 
a right angle at or near the point where the ear was produced, 
thus showing the tassel on a level with the ear. Many of the 
tassels were very deficient in pollen." In another plot from 
self-fertilized seed, nearly all the tassels were abortive. All the 
plants from self-fertilized seed produced a greater proportion 
of barren stalks or poorly filled ears than plants of the same 
varieties from hand crossed seed or from seed naturally fertil- 
ized. On the other hand the flowers of barley and wheat are so 
constructed that their flowers seldom open and hence are natu- 
rally self-fertilized, but even here artificial crossing results in 
increased productiveness. 

The Effect of Cross-pollination is not always apparent in the 
progeny of the first generation, but is frequently plainly to be 
seen in the crossed fruit or seed the first year. However, differ- 
ences may appear as the result of the cross the second or later 
generation which were not suspected. When corn is crossed it 



SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 



63 



is generally believed tliat the effect of the cross is apparent the 
first year in the grain, but careful experiments plainly show that 
this is not so, and that flint corn grains which do not show a 
trace of the admixture of sweet corn the first generation may 
produce ears the second generation, showing some of the char- 
acteristics of the sweet corn, and the same is true of other 
kinds that are crossed. The same truth undoubtedly holds as 
good in the case of other plants. 

Mixing Varieties.— Practically varieties of plants can be 
mixed only in the blossom; and in order to mix the different 
varieties both must be in blossom at the same time. On this 
account potatoes do not mix in the hill. The varieties of some 
species of plants are much inclined to mix. Any two varieties 
of corn, melons, squashes and cucumbers are especially liable to 
be crossed if growing in the same field and in fiower at the same 
time. However, two kinds of corn, of beans and of other plants 
may be grown on adjoining pieces of land withut danger of mix- 
ing, providing that they are not in fiower at the same time: e. g., 
Cory and Evergreen sweet corn if planted at the same time 
may be grown for seed close together and will not mix, since 
the Cory would be entirely out of flower when the Evergreen 
came into flower. Melons and squashes never mix together, for 
although this belief is widespread the most careful experiments 
have failed in getting any fruit when the one has been pollen- 
ized by the other. Neither do musk-melons and water-melons 
mix together. 

Distance Between Varieties. — The distance which should in- 
tervene between varieties liable to mix is variously estimated by 
different growers and is influenced by various conditions. The 
pollen of corn, grasses and many other plants is moved by the 
wind; and when different varieties of corn flowering at the same 
time are planted for seed there will be more liablity of their 
mixing when the pieces of land on which they grow are in line of 
the prevailing winds than when east and west of each other. If 
a grove or hill intervenes between varieties it will often prevent 
crossing. When varieties of each plant are not on a line of pre- 
vailing winds, they are reasonably free from mixing if 500 feet 
apart; otherwise, at least 1.000 feet should intervene. 



64 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Such plants as melons, cucumbers, squashes and onions and 
most other plants with conspicuous flowers, are pollenized hy 
insects to whose bodies the pollen becomes attached and is thus 
carried from one flower to another. This pollen is not light and 
powdery as in corn and many other plants but is rather heavy. 
It is obvious then that the direction of the wind has little effect 
in crossing such plants. It is generally agreed that different 
varieties of plants pollenized by insects should have at least 1,000 
feet between them to prevent mixing, but which will often occur 
to some extent even with these precautions. The greatest care 
should be taken to keen stock seed from being mixed. 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER V. 

1. How are seeds tested? 

2. How are seeds cured and stored? 

3. What is meant by stock seed? Specialties? Humbuors? Novel- 
ties? 

4. Illustrate the law that the constant tendency for cultivated 
plants is to vary widely from the original form. 

5. Illustrate the law that the qualities of the parent are more 
liable to be transmitted than the desirable qualities of a few individual 
fruits. 

6. Why is it a poor plan to select seed from plants remaining 
in the garden late after the best specimens have been gathered? 

7. What is meant by cross and self pollination? 

8. What is the effect of cross and self pollination? 

9. How can the mixing of varieties be prevented? 
10. How are plants pollenized? 



CHAPTER Vl. 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 

Glass structures are becoming more numerous each season 
for raising vegetables and flowers, and are destined to continue 
to increase in use as the wealth of the country increases. They 
are referred to here under the head of cold frames, hotbeds and 
greenhouses. 

Cold Frames. — The term cold frame is applied to frames cov- 
ered with glass and used to protect plants in winter, or for for- 
warding them without any heat other than that derived from 
the sun. It is the simplest form of glass structure. They are 




Figure 24. — Movable frame which may be stored out of the way in the summer. 
It is generally made of one inch boards and is ver^- cunvenient for those 
using- only a few sashes. 

generally made 4% or 6 feet wide and of any length or depth 
which convenience may suggest. The sashes for covering them 
are generally 4x4i/^ feet or 3x6 in size. The location should be 
near to water and the house, preferably sloping to the south and 
well protected on the north and west by buildings, trees, etc. If 
there is no protection on the north and west, a tight board fence 
six feet high will answer the purpose. In making the bed the 
following are requisites: Enough 2x12 in. plank to go the length 
of the north side and the same length of 2x6 in. plank for the 
south side of the bed and 2x4 in. stakes, two or more feet long. 



66 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



for eacli corner and to support the sides firmly in place and sash 
and shutters to cover. The plants should be made into a box 
with its width equal to the length of the sash and extending east 
and west. See figure 24. Those forming the north side should 
be six inches above ground, and the top edge of the plank forming 
the southerly side should be five inches lower. Thus when the 
sash is put on, it will slope five inches to the south, as shown in 
figure. The planks should be nailed to the stakes, and end pieces 
put in. The earth inside the frame should be thrown out to the 
bottom of the planks and used to bank up the outside of the 
frame. The soil of the frame should be of the best quality if 
plants are to be grown in it. The frame is now ready for the sash 
and plants. More durable and expensive frames are sometimes 
made of brick or stone for the sides, and sometimes four-inch 
strips are put on wherever two of the sashes come together, to 
serve as a support. Frames are also frequently made several 
feet deep, but the same general rule applies in the building of 
them as are here given. 

Cold frames are used in the middle states to winter over 
cabbage and lettuce plants. The plants are started in September 
and planted into them when grown to a good transplanting size. 
In severe climates this is not a safe method. 

Cold frames are used here in the spring for forwarding let- 
tuce and other early crops, and still later for melons, cucumbers 
and other tropical plants. They are also used to extend the 
season of growth during the autumn months and to protect some 
of the half-hardy plants, such as spinach, during the winter. 
They require ventilation during the day in mild weather, and on 
cold nights should be covered with mats and shutters or shutters 
alone. They are very inexpensive and very useful in the garden, 
but where the materials for making them can be had at low cost 
hotbeds are much more satisfactory for forcing vegetables. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are made very much like cold frames, 
only they are warmed by fermenting horse manure or other 
material placed under the soil, and hence they must be dug out 
deep enough to make room for it. The amount of manure neces- 
sary to properly warm a hotbed will depend very much on the 
season of the year at which the bed is made up and the crop 
to be grown. In the colder northern states when the hotbeds are 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



67 



made up at the beginning of March from 24 to 30 inches of ma- 
nure should be used, and covered with six or eight inches of rich 
soil. Later in the season 18 inches or even one foot of manure 




5 I i o 



Figure 25. — Cross section of hotbed. 

may be sufficient. In favorable locations hotbeds may be used 
all winter for growing lettuce, radishes, etc. This is not often 
practicable in the extreme northern states and cheap greenhouses 
are generally used there during winter and hotbeds only during 
the spring. 

The Hotbed and Frames for Early Spring Use should be pre- 
pared in the autumn, so that no digging will have to be done in 
the spring. The soil for spring use should generally be put into 
them, covered with leaves, and the shutters and mats put on 
to keep out the frost. If this has not been done the sash may 
be put on in the early spring, which will partially thaw out the 
soil in the bed; or, by another method, more manure may be 
used, putting it on the surface of the frozen land, and the frame 
may be set on top of it. In the latter case the manure should ex- 
tend at least one foot beyond the sides of the frame and be one- 
half again as deep as when placed in a pit and the frame should 
be banked up with manure. It is quite common practice to 
make movable frames of one-inch boards large enough for three 
or four sash, as shown in figure 24. These are kept from year to 
year, being set on top of the manure and the earth put into them. 

Hotbed Manure. — The material generally used for heating 
hotbeds is fresh horse manure, but sheep manure and even speni 
hops may serve the purpose. Of animal manures, that from 
horses fed on highly nitrogenous foods, i. e., on grain foods, wil: 



S8 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



heat best. The preparation of the manure is very simple. It 
should be gathered together in a pile, as fresh as may be, 
when if moist it will generally heat, no matter how cold the 
weather. If it does not start to heat readily, a few buckets of hot 
water poured into the center of the pile will often start it. When 
it gets nicely started the pile should be turned over, throwing the 
outside manure into the center of the pile and breaking up all 
the lumps. In a few days it will heat again and will then be 
ready to go into the frames, but do not put it into the frames 
until it is heating thoroughly. Clear horse manure heats too 
violently and should be mixed with about its own bulk of leaves 
or fine straw. The leaves used to keep frost out of the frames 
during winter now come in to good advantage for mixing with the 
manure. Of course, if the manure gathered has considerable 
straw in it this admixture is not necessary. 

The way of putting manure in the frames calls for some 
little care. It should be broken up very fine, mixed with leaves 
or other material and spread as evenly as possible over the 
whole bed, taking special pains to have the frame well filled in 
the center, as it settles there much quicker than at the sides. 
As the manure is put in it should be packed down quite firmly by 
the feet, taking great care to have it evenly packed throughout. 
Now put on the sash and cover until it heats well all through 
the bed. If it does not start to heating quickly enough, a few 
buckets of hot water should be adderJ. When well warmed 
through, level off the top of the manure and cover with soil six 
inches deep. This soil should have been prepared in the autumn 
and protected from frost by mulching or put under the leaves in 
the bed; but if this provision has not been made the soil may be 
searched for in cellars, under strawstacks, in the woods under 
leaves or elsewhere, or the soil may be thawed out by the use 
of sash and manure. As this latter process is tedious all experi- 
enced growers prepare their soil in autumn. 

After the soil is put on it should be left until it is warmed 
through and the weed seeds near the surface have germinated. 
Then remove the sashes and make the surface fine with a rake 
and the bed is ready to receive the seed. A hotbed made up 
in this way in March will continue to give out heat five or six 
weeks, after which it will be practically a cold frame, but since 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



69 



after the middle of April the sun is pretty high and the bed well 
warmed, the plants will continue to flourish. 

Hotbeds require more water than cold frames and more care 
in the matter of ventilation. They should not be started until 
a short time before one is ready to use them. If seedlings are tc 
be raised in them to be later on transplanted, start only enough 
sashes to grow the seedlings and do not start other hotbeds 
until the seedlings are big enough to be removed into them. 

For the ordinary farm garden four or five hotbed sashes are 
a great plenty and no more should be started than can be prop- 




Figure 26. — Fire liotbed. 

erly attended to. These should be started about the first oi 
March. This number will be found sufficient for all the early 
radishes, onions, lettuce, cress and other greens for the table in 
early spring, and for raising tomatoes, cabbage and other vege- 
table plants to be set out later in the open ground. 

Shutters and mats are used for covering the sash of hot- 
beds and cold frames at night to prevent too rapid radiation of 
the heat. 

Fire Hotbeds. — Horse manure will undoubtedly continue to 



70 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



be used for warming hotbeds, mo matter how much greenhouse 
construction or means of artificial heating may be cheapened, 
but there are some situations where it may be more economical 
and convenient to use a forcing bed or what is sometimes 
called a fire hotbed. This closel»y resembles a hotbed in out- 
ward appearance, but instead of being heated with manure a 



crops grow. Ten inch terra cotta or glazed drain tile is a cheap 
material for the flue, or brick may be used for this purpose. 
The furnace and the first eight or ten feet of the flue should be 
made of common hard hrick and have a lining of fire brick set 
in fire clay. If the pit is not over thirty feet long the fire box 
should be at one end and the chimney at the other; but if much 
longer it is better to have the chimney over the fire-box and to 
run the tile to the end of the house and return back to the chim- 
ney. This chimney should have dampers so arranged that when 
kindling the fire a direct draft may be had Into it, and after 
starting the fire the heat and smoke can then be forced to go 
through the whole length of the pipe. This arrangement is de- 
sirable on account of the difficulty in getting a draft through a 
long, flat, cold flue. In laying such a flue, it should rise slightly 
throughout its whole length from flrebox to chimney. The fur- 
nace should vary in size according to whether coal or wood is to 
be used for fuel. For wood the furnace should be 18 inches wide 
and arched over the required length, generally 4i/^ feet, with cast 
iron grate bars set in the walls. There should be an ash pit of 
suitable size, and both it and the fire-box should have suitable 
iron doors set in brick. The illustrations herewith show the gen- 
eral arrangement of such a house. It is a good plan to build 
a low shed for fuel on the end where the furnace is located. 




fine is used to take its 
place, and it is warmed 
by the smoke of wood, 
coal or other fuel. In 
this case a pit should 
be excavated, fur- 
nished with permanent 
walls and a good 
strong floor to support 
the soil in which the 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 71 

The heat from a flue is very dry, and much more water is 
required when hotbeds are heated in this way than when manure 
is used as the source of heat. 

A Greenhouse Hotbed. — A greenhouse may be heated by 
manure or a combination of manure and other artificial heat> 
In the following lines and illustrations is given the plan of what 
may be called a greenhouse hotbed which has been in very suc- 
cessful operation at the Minnesota Agriculaural School. The de- 
scription is from an article on the subject by R. S. Mackintosh, of 
the Division of Horticulture. 

''There are disadvantages in hotbeds, as, for instance, the 
transplanting, ventilating, watering, etc., must be done from the 
outside even in severe weather, while in a house like the one 





Figure 28. — Plan and ele\ ation of hotbed greenhouse. 

shown in the figure these operations can be carried on easily. 
The house is simply a hotbed built so as to allow a person to gc 



72 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

inside to do all the work of caring for the plants. Figure 28 
shows the general plan of the house. The size is 12x24 feet. 
The roof consists of sixteen sashes, each 3x6 feet. Any number 
of sashes may be used according to the size of the house desired. 
To receive the most sunlight the house should extend north and 
south; the light will then strike both sides of the plants. The 
south end of the house is glazed from the surface of the bed up 
to the rafters. It is not necessary to excavate the full depth 
of four feet, because the earth that is thrown out can be used 
to bank up with on either side, making a terrace as sloping as 
desired. 

The heat is furnished by two to three feet of well prepared 
manure in each bed, over which is placed five inches of soil. 




Fig-lire 29. — Sectional view of hotbed greenhouse. 

The sashes are fastened to the rafters by screws which prevents 
their being lifted by heavy winds and at the same time allows 
them to be removed very easily when desired to replace soil or 
manure. Ventilation is provided for by fastening one or more 
sashes with hinges at the bottom so they may be raiised as high 
as necessary at the top. 

Many kinds of building material may be used in the con- 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



73 



struction of the vrall, beds, etc. Lumber is used in the building 
shown in the figure, but brick or stone would be more durable, 
though it would add considerable to the first cost. The posts 
are three feet apart, extend about two feet below the planks 
and are braced. The inside rows of posts need not be quite 
so strong as the outside ones, and need not be braced. When 
a house is not more than twenty-four feet long it will not be 
necessary to support the roof in more than one place. This is 
done by extending two of the middle posts to the rafters. 

In figure 29 is shown a cross section of this greenhouse and 
the way the sashes and rafters are joined at top and bottom. 
The sashes are cut so as to fit tightl}' at the top and the plate 
is beveled a little so as to allow water to run off quickly. 

There are sixteen wooden shutters for covering the sashes 
on cold nights. These are made the same v\'idth as the sashes 

but six inches longer. 
One cleat is put on the 
upper side at one end, 
and the other on the 
lower side at the other 
end. When put on, the 
upper cleat is against the 
ridge pole which leaves 
the shutters clear for the 
water to run off. They 
are made of second fenc- 
ing matched and dressed. 

In this house there is 
glass over the path, 
which is not necessary 
in the lean-to plan, 
shown in figure 30, where 
the sash is all on the 
south side of the path 
It is important to have 
crops grow as close tc 
the glass as may be, and this fact should be carefully borne in 
mind. This style of house is susceptible of many modifications. 
It may be used as a lean-to on the south side of the dwelling, 




Figure 30 — Cross section of lean-to green- 
house hotbed. 



74 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

where it may receive a little heat from the house. Its limita 
tions are about the same as those of hotbeds. When such a 
house is intended for use in winter, it might be an advantage 
to so plan it that the manure from one-half could be renewed 
every five or six weeks. 

GREENHOUSES. 

Greenhouse is a term applied rather loosely to glass struo- 
tuies of the larger sort having special heating apparatus, and 
used for growing plants. The more expensive structures are 
not referred to here, but only the simpler ones such as are most 
economical for use in the market and home garden. 

A Very Cheap, and Yet Withal Serviceable Greenhouse, is 
described in ''How to Make the Garden Pay" and the publishers 

of it have kindly con- 
sented to the use of it 
here. It is called the 
"Model Forcing Pit." 
Figure 13 shows a cross 
section of this house 
which is made with a 
valley in the center, so 
that in point of fact it 
is two houses. The 
total width of both houses is twenty-six feet. The alleys are 
dug into the ground in each house eighteen inches wide and 
eighteen inches deep and boarded up on each side. The beds 
on each side are four feet wide, and the attendant can cultivate 
them when standing in the alley. The peak of the green- 
house is only four and a half Teet above the ground level or six 
feet from the bottom of the alleys. The sides are only one foot 
above the ground, and are made of plank nailed to cedar posts 
and banked upon the outside with horse manure in winter. 
The roof is covered with movable sashes 7 or feet long 
and of any convenient width. Common hotbed sash (3x6 feet) 
might be made to answer, but sash having larger glass than is 
generally put in them is best. Large sized glass is preferable, 
12x16 inches being a good size. A light framework for the 
sash to rest on, similar in construction to that shown in figure 




igure 31. — Market gardeners' greenhouse. 



GLASS STRUCTURE 



75 



□f a greenhouse hotbed is necessary, and the sashes should 
be screwed down and ventilation secured in the same w^ay as 
there explained. In the center of B, where the two roof sections 
meet, the sashes rest on a plank 12 inches wide cut out % by 8 
inches, to form a gutter to carry off water as shown in figure 32. 
The center planks rest on two rows of 2x3 inch posts, two and a 
half feet long and twelve inches above the beds; these posts 
are four feet apart in each row. The total length of the houses 
here described may vary according to circumstances. The house 
from which this plan is taken was 100 feet long. It was heated 
with a second hand tubular steam boiler which at an outside 
temperature of zero, has 
to carry about five 
pounds pressure to main- 
tain a temperature of 65 
or 70 degrees. Two inch 
pipes conduct the heat 
from the boiler, one line 
of pipe running up each 
side of the house and 
both returning through 
the center at B, back to 
the boiler. The furnace 
room is an excavation 
10x12 feet and six feet 
deep at the northerly end of the house, built with a good wall 
and roof. The length of pipe required is 450 feet. In the ex- 
treme northern states more pipe radiating surface would per- 
haps be required for best results. The entire cost of material 
for a structure of these dimensions, boiler and pipes included, 
amounts to about $450. The cost of steam fitting will have to be 
added to this, but the rest of the work can be done by any man 
of ordinary intelligence. Mr. Greiner, whose description has 
been largely followed in the above, says that he likes the pipes 
all above ground as here recommended for forcing vegetables, 
but if wanted for starting seedlings and for general propagating 
purposes the pipe had better be placed ten to twelve inches 
under the surface, and encased in an ordinary three inch drain 




Fig-ure 32. — Valley in market gardeners' 
greenhouse showing the way the 
sashbars are attached to the plate. 



76 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



tile as shown at D, figure 31. In sections where fuel is high 
priced the beds might he partially heated with manure. 

Figure 33 sho^s a cross section of a lean-to house that is 
easily adapted to most locations, but especially suited to side- 
hills. It is tv/enty feet wide and may be made of any length 
desired. It should have a boiler room on one end or at the back 
side as is most convenient. It should, of course, extend east 
and west so that the slope will be entirely to the south or south- 
east. The walls are made of cedar posts tightly boarded up on 
both sides. The alleys are two feet wide and planked ovi each 
side. The roof is shown made of permanent sash bars but these 




Fig-ure 33. — Cross section of lean-to greenLouse. 

might be made of movable sash as recommended for the model 
forcing pit. One ventilator is at the top of the roof and another 
is in the side wall. Two purlins extending the length of the 
house are supported by small gas pipe posts. The northerly 
bench is four feet wide, raised three feet above the alley and 
is filled with six inches of soil or it may be used for seed boxes. 
The center bench is eight feet wide and may be solid or raised. 
The southerly bench is shown filled with stable manure and is 
practically a hotbed. The same treatment may also be given 
the center bench. But where the plan is followed of making up 
a part of the benches with manure, it is well to have some or all 
of the roof glazed with movable sash, to facilitate th© work ol 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



77 



putting in and taking out the manure. The use of stable manure 
to supplement the heating apparatus is a practice that may be 
economically followed in locations where coal is high priced and 
stable manure abundant. The heating arrangement could be 
either steam or hot water with the flow pipes high up near the 
roof, as shown at A and B and the returns at C and D. 

Methods of Heating. — There are practically three methods of 
heating greenhouses, viz.: by smoke flue, by hot water and by 
steam. Heating by smoke flue is described under the head of 
flre hotbeds. It has the merit of being easily and cheaply con- 
structed by anyone having some little ingenuity. Even when 
made on the best principles it is probably more wasteful of fuel 
than a good steam or hot water apparatus, but where inferior 
fuel can be cheaply obtained a smoke flue may often be used 
to advantage. As for the relative merits of hot water and 
steam apparatus for healing, it is probably enough to say that 
each system nas its earnest advocates and that very often there 
is little advantage in favor of either. Where a very large heat- 
ing plant must be used, making a night watchman necessary, it 
is best to plan for steam heating at low pressure. For small 
greenhouses perhaps a hot water plant is best. It costs more to 
put in the hot water apparatus because it requires more radi- 
ating surface since the pipes are not heated as hot as when 
steam is used. Some exclusive merits are perhaps justly claimed 
for a combination of hot water and steam, in which system hot 
water is used for heating in mild weather, while in severe 
weather the water is lowered in the boiler, a regulator is put on 
and the pipes are fllled with steam. It is probable that an ordi- 
nary tubular steam boiler is the most practical kind to use 
either for a hot water or steam heating apparatus. 

The amount of radiating surface necessary for heating a 
greenhouse will depend on the temperature to be maintained and 
the location of the house. In a general way, one should figure 
that glass houses will require at least four times as much radi- 
nting surface as an ordinary dwelling house similarly situated 
and enclosing the same number of cubic feet of space. In 
estimating the amount of radiating surface necessary it is always 
advisable to consult some practical person acquainted with such 
problems. 



V 



78 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE 
BUILDING AND CARE OF HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES. 

The Sash for Hotbeds or Cold Frames should be about 3x6 
feet or 4x4 1/^ feet in size; the glass free from blisters, of double 
strength and lapped not more than one-fourth of an inch. If 
lapped more than this water is liable to freeze the laps and crack 
the glass, and dirt will collect largely between the glass. It 
should be bedded in putty and nailed in, not puttied in. Common 
window sash might be used for the purpose in a small way and 
temporarily, but it is not strong enough to last well and besides 
as the sash bars run both ways and project beyond the glass 
the rain water cannot run off, but soaks the wood and leaks 
through into the hotbed, making it too wet in places. Also, the 
cross bars in common window sash make a needless extra 
shadow that is objectionable. Regular hotbed sash is made with 
sash bars running only one way so that the water falling on it 
runs off easily and quickly. Hotbed sash can be bought of sash 
manufacturers or may be made at home by any person having a 
fair amount of mechanical ingenuity. 

Shutters are desirable for covering the glass of hotbeds and 
cold frames. They are generally made of second fencing, match- 
ed and dressed, and in size of the same width as the sash but 
about six inches longer with a six-inch cleat on each end. 

The Mats are often made of straw, but cloth and burlap 
mats are sometimes used. Straw mats are probably as good as 
any kind and are easily made as follows Make a frame of 
2x4 inch lumber the size of the mats desired; four feet wide and 
one foot longer than the sash is a convenient size. Stand this 
frame up against a wall and tightly stretch four or five tarred 
strings eight to ten inches apart from top to bottom so as to 
evenly divide the four feet of width. Have as many balls of 
lighter tarred strings as there are strings fastened to the frame 
and fasten one to each upright string at the bottom. Commence 
at the lower end by laying a wisp of straw, cut ends out, on the 
string at the bottom and fasten it there by twisting each of the 
smaller strings once around the straw and the upright strings. 
Next put on another wisp of straw and so continue until the 
frame is covered. Mats thus made are an admirable protection 



GIuASS STRUCTURES. 



79 



against frost and far iDetter than stiuiters alone. The advantage 
of having shutters in addition to the mats is that they keep the 
mats from getting wet, which makes them so heavy that they 
break easily in handling or they freeze solid and do not lie close 
or are clumsy to handle. Rye straw is best for mats and it 
is most tough and durable when cut partially green. It is often 
threshed by hand so that the straw can be kept straight, but it 
may be cleaned by a threshing machine by holding the bundle 
and only putting the heads into the machine. 

Ventilation and Temperature are subjects of greatest impor- 
tance in growing plants under glass. The various classes of 
plants require different degrees of heat to reach their best 
development. For instance, lettuce, radish, cress and similar 
plants grow best at a low temperature, say about 75 degrees in 
the day and 40 to 50 degrees at night, and may even be frozen 
without serious injury, while tomatoes, egg plants, cucumbers 
and melons grow best at the higher temperature of 85 to 90 de- 
grees in the day and 60 degrees at night. If the former plants 
are kept at a higher temperature than that given they are liable 
to become diseased and infested with insects. This is especially 
true of lettuce. On the other hand if the high temperature 
plants are kept much cooler they become sickly and weak, al- 
though tomato plants will grow in quite cool temperature. In ad- 
mitting air to glass structures care should be taken that the 
wind does not blow in on the plants. This is generally best ac- 
complished in hotbeds and frames by blocking up the sash at the 
ends or sides with notched pieces of wood. 

The temperature of any place, unless otherwise specified, is 
the temperature there of a thermometer in the shade. A ther- 
mometer with the full sunlight shining on it, will record about 
fifteen degrees higher than in the shade, which is a point always 
to be borne in mind in ventilating. 

In the weather of early spring when the sun is getting high 
the middle of the days will be very warm and the nights still 
quite cool and frosty. It is then that a beginner often makes 
the mistake of leaving the sashes of his hotbeds open late in 
the afternoon, and the beds cool off more than is desirable. At 
this season of the year but little ventilation is necessary, and 
frames and greenhouses should be shut up quite early in the 



80 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



afternoon, and the covering put on to retain the heat as soon 
as the sun is low. In the warm weather of later spring, the 
sash of the hotbeds and frames may be removed in the day and 
kept on only at night. No exact rules can be laid down for 
ventilating, but it is quite a simple matter to learn, if one is 
observant and uses constant vigilance. Many persons just be- 
ginning to use greenhouses and hotbeds fail to get best results 
from them because they neglect the matter of ventilation. On 
cloudy mornings it may not be needed, but if the sun comes 
through the clouds it may warm the house or the beds in a 
v^ery short t^me, so that when they are examined the whole crop 
has been injured by the heat. This is a most common cause of 
failure by amateurs in charge of greenhouses and hotbeds. 

In nature the night temperature in which plants grow aver- 
ages from fifteen to twenty degrees below that of the day, and 
it has been found in practice that when this condition is reversed 
the plants do not do well. This, of course, can be easily avoided 
by a little forethought. It is a bad plan, generally speaking, to 
ventilate much in cold weather, when the leaves are wet. On 
this account it is best to water early in the day, so that the 
leaves may dry off before much ventilation is required. 

Watering. — Plants that are growing slowly do not need much 
water, while those that are growing vigorously need a great deal 
of it. Growing plants need water whenever they are dry. In 
bright warm weather a rapid growing crop in hotbed or cold 
frame will need watering every day while in cloudy moist 
weather perhaps no water will be needed for a week. In fact, 
watering in cloudy weather seems to encourage disease. When 
applying water see that the soil is wet as far down as the roots 
extend. It is only the beginner who just wets the surface soil 
and thinks the plants sufficiently watered. If plants are wilting 
for want of water in the soil give it to them no matter what 
time of day, but it is always a great advantage in such cases 
to shade as well as water them if the sun is shining. If a long 
continued spell of cloudy weather is followed by a period of 
bright sunshine it is not uncommon to see plants wilting that 
have plenty of water in the soil surrounding them. In such a 
case it may be desirable to shade them somewhat in the middle 
of the day until they get used to the sunlight. In cold weather 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



81 



It is a poor plan to water most of our plants at night since the 
water will cool off the air and the plants may be cnecked in 
growth, but in hot weather the reverse is true and plants seem 
to get more benefit from a good soaking in the evening, when 
they can have all night to take the water in, than if it is applied 
in the morning and followed by a hot sun. In watering hotbeds 
in very cold weather use a fine rose sprinkler and if practicable 
tepid water. At other seasons good lake or cistern water is 
perfectly safe, and is generally used by commercial growers at 
all seasons of the year. Avoid getting the soil water-soaked. 

The leaves of lettuce and some other plants are liable to 
burn if watered when the sun is shining brightly on them. 

The Soil should vary somewhat in texture for different 
plants, but all garden vegetables will flourish in much the same 
kind of soil. For use in glass structures a light, friable rich, 
sandy loam is best, ihis is easily obtained when one has been 
using hotbeds by mixing some of the old rotted manure which 
has been used for heating them the preceding year with any 
good sandy loam. If sandy loam cannot be had, clay loam may 
be used and sand added to the mixture. The manure from old 
hotbeds is especially good for this purpose and should form about 
one-third of the bulk of the soil. 

Boxes. — In the case-, of many plants having small seeds, it 
is a good plan to start them in boxes instead of growing them 
in beds, on account of the better care that may thus be given 
them. When plants are to be marketed it is often best to grow 
them in the boxes in which they are to be sold. Frequently, too, 
where plants are started in the greenhouse and then moved to 
the open ground it is most convenient to have them in boxes. 
For this purpose boxes should be about four inches deep and 
the size of a soap or cracker box, Tsiiich may be cut down for the 
purpose and thus make very cheap boxes. Of course where the 
market demands a certain number of plants in boxes, they will 
have tg be made for the purpose. The lumber for these can be 
obtained at any box factory and what would perhaps be other- 
wise idle moments may be used in putting it together at trifling 
expense. 

Substitutes for Glass. — Frames of the same size as hotbed 
f^ash are sometimes covered with prepared cloth or paper sub- 



82 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



stitutes for glass. Such covering, however, will not allow the 
sun's rays to penetrate it easily nor is it so effective in prevent- 
ing radiation of the heat as glass, but under some circumstances 
it may be very desirable. Sash thus covered may often be used 
to advantage in the latter part of spring by alternating it on 
the frames and thus doubling the amount of sash at small ex- 
pense. Or, they may be used in the warm weather of spring 
when the sash needs to be removed entirely in the middle of the 
day. They are excellent for. covering beds filled with recently 
transplanted crops, since the light is less intense and evapora- 
tion less under them than under glass. A convenient way of 
forming these sashes is to make frames without sash bars but 
with one or two wires stretched across them to support the cloth 
or paper covering. Unbleached heavy cotton cloth may be used 
for this purpose, and the material for dressing it should be made 
of three pints pale linseed oil, one ounce acetate of lead and 
four ounces white resin. Grind the acetate in a little oil, then 
add the resin and the rest of the oil. Melt in an iron kettle 
over a gentle fire until well mixed and apply warm to the cloth. 
When paper is used it should be what is known as manilla 
wrapping paper. Paste this firmly and tightly on the frame with 
fresh flour paste. Dry in a w^arm place. Then wipe the whole 
of the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. 
Dry it again, and apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of it and 
dry in a warm place. Use linseed oil that is free from cotton 
seed oil. 

Shading the Glass. — In the hot weather of late spring or sum- 
mer the sunlight is too warm for many plants in the greenhouse 
and it is customary to shade them. The amount of shade neces- 
sary will depend somewhat on circumstances. This shade may 
consist of lath screens laid on the roof, but more commonly it 
is given by sprinkling the glass on the outside, w^ith a wash 
made of white lead and gasoline, put on with a spray pump or 
syringe. This is easily and cheaply done. It will generally 
come off by autumn or may be rubbed off with a coarse rag or 
brush. Whitewash is sometimes used for this purpose but it 
is too easily washed off by heavy rains to be desirable. 



GLASS STRUCTURES. 



83 



SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER IN CONNECTION WITH 
BUILDING GLASS HOUSES FOR PLANTS. 

(1) That all joints should be made tight and so far as pos- 
sible so placed that water will not lodge in them. 

(2) There should be just as much room in the beds and 
as little in the paths as possible. 

(3) The glass should be as close to the beds as it can be 
and allow room to manage the crops grown in them. It should 
be of larger size for greenhouses than for hotbeds and in size not 
smaller than 10x12 inches, laid on sash bars 11 inches apart. The 
larger the glass the better. There is not so much breakage in 
large as in small glass. 

(4) A permanent water supply is very desirable. 

(5) The glass should be of good quality, free from blisters, 
bad waves or other imperfections and what is known as double 
strength glass. 

(6) The heating arrangements should be sufficient to heat 
the house easily in coldest weather; in other words, it should 
be more than sufficient to maintain the proper temperature if 
crowded. 

(7) Having the heating plant insufficient and then crowd- 
ing it in severe weather, injures the heating plant and wastes 
fuel besides being a trial of patierce. 

(8) The ventilators should ?je large and carefully fitted so 
they will close tightly. When in tie roof they should be open at 
the top. If they open at the bottnm the moisture that condenses 
on the glass forms an ice ridge on them in cold weather and 
prevents their shutting tight. 

(9) The smaller the sash bars and framing material in the 
roof the more sunlight can reach the crop. 

(10) The greenhouse roof may be covered with movable 
sash, but it is generally found most desirable to use permanent 
sash bars. Where severe hail storms are frequent it might be 
well to use movable saeh and take them off in the summer, but 
such places are rare exceptions. It requires a very severe hail- 
storm to break double strength glass, when at an angle, as in 
a roof, and practically there is little risk from this source. 

(11) In the framing of greenhouses, for instances for pur- 



84 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

lins and posts, gas pipe can be used to good advantage. It is 
cheap and durable. 

(12) All joints should be painted beiore being put together; 
all wood and iron work should be kept well painted. 

(13) If putty is used in glazing the glass it should be 
bedded in it and nailed in, in this way: paint the sash bars, 
then run a thin coat of putty along them; bed the glass in it 
commencing at the bottom of the sash and lapping the glass one- 
fourth of an inch, on the same plan that shingles are laid on a 
roof. Fasten the glass with round three-CLuarter inch brads, us- 
ing four to each glass; put more liquid putty along the glass 
next to the sash bars and smooth it off with a knife even with 
the glass. 

(14) Liquid putty is made by mixing one-third boiled lin- 
seed oil, one-third white lead and one-third common putty. If 
too thick, as may be the case in cold weather, add a little tur- 
pentine or benzine. It may be applied with a brush but the best 
way is to put it on with a bulb bought for the purpose; or a bulb 
may be made with leather, having a large quill through which to 
squeeze the putty. In the latter case there must be a hole in 
the side or end by which the bulb is filled and which may be 
drawn together by a string. 

(15) Perhaps the most popular way of setting glass in 
greenhouses at present is by using square glass and butting the 
ends together. To do this to t^st advantage no nails or putty 
are used and a special wooden «cap is put on the sash bar which 
holds the glass in place. If desired to have the glass tight the 
abutting edges may be just touched with white lead before being 
put together. This makes a very satisfactory roof. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VI. 

1. Discuss the use and construction of a cold frame. 

2. Discuss the use and construction of a hot-bed. 

3. Discuss the use and construction of a fire hot-bed. 

4. Discuss the use and construction of a green-house. 

5. How should the ventilation and temperature be regulated for 
plants grown under glass? 

6. Tlow should plants be watered? 

7. What kind of soil is best for plants growing under glass? 

8. Wliar is a good method of starting plants in a grepu-hotise ? 

9. What may be substituted for glass on hot-bed sashes? 

10. Name ten important things to be remembered in building glass 
houses for plants. 



CHAPTER VII. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES. 

In this chapter only the more common insects infesting 
garden vegetables are referred to. There are many others that 
almost yearly cause some damage to our crops and which in 
occasional years cause serious loss. But to enumerate them 
would require more space than can he afforded here. In dealing 
with them it is well to remember that biting insects, such as 
potato beetles and blister beetles, are generally most surely de- 
stroyed by arsenical poisons such as Paris green and London 
purple; while sucking insects, such as plant lice and chinch 
bugs are not affected by them but are most readily destroyed by 
external applications such as tobacco water and kerosene emul- 
sion. We should also remember that in our war upon injurious 
insects we have the support of most of the birds and of the moles 
and shrews, and these should be protected as the friends of 
man rather than be destroyed as is too often the case among 
thoughtless or ignorant people. Moles and shrews are especially 
useful since they work under ground, and feed largely on various 
insects that are difllcult to destroy on account of their living 
in the soil. It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the shrew 
(often called mole) will eat its weight of insects each day. In- 
sects are also liable to attacks of parasites or of fungus and 
other diseases, which destroy them in large numbers and often 
in a very short time. 

When insects appear in small numbers hand picking is often 
a very efficient remedy, but when they become very abundant 
some other method of destroying them must be devised. 

INSECTICIDES AND METHODS OP DESTROYING INSECTS.. 

Pyrethrum is the insect powder of the stores. It is made 
by grinding the flowers of the pyrethrum plant which closely 
resembles the common oxeye daisy. It is not poisonous to higher 
organized animals although very destructive to many kinds of 
Insects. It is frequently adulterated and can seldom be obtained 



86 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



of good quality. It also deteriorates very quickly when exposed 
to the air. On these accounts it is often very difficult to get sat- 
isfactory results from that obtained at the stores. When used it 
should be diluted v/ith about five times its bulk of flour, with 
which it should be kept in a tight vessel for at least twenty-four 
hours before using in order to get best results. When thus con- 
fined it takes up the poisonous principle of the pyrethrum. It 
should always be kept in an air-tight receptacle. 

Paris green is a refuse product composed of arsenious acid 
and copper and is probably as safe as any arsenic compound. 
It is only very slightly soluble in water, and is used with water 
at the rate of one pound to one hundred or more gallons of 
water; it is also used when mixed with dry substances, at the 
rate of one pound to fifty pounds of flour or one hundred pounds 
of land plaster, road dust or sifted coal ashes. In using it with 
water the addition of an equal amount of milk of lime often 
prevents injury to leaves. 

London purple is composed of arsenious acid and lime. It is 
often much cheaper than Paris green but varies more in its com- 
position. On account of its being lighter than Paris green it 
does not settle so quickly when put in water. It is used in the 
same manner as that substance. When used in water an equal 
amount of milk of lime should always be added to neutralize the 
free acid which it sometimes contains in injurious quantities, 
and which may burn the foliage of tender plants. London purple 
adheres to the foliage of plants longer than Paris green. 

Tobacco 's very useful for destroying some kinds of insects 
in the garden and greenhouse. It is especially effective aginst 
plant lice and soft-skinned hairless caterpillars. Where smoke 
from it can be confined around the plants, as in greenhouses and 
hotbeds, it is common to use it in a smudge, but when thus used 
it should be kept from blazing. It is also used in powdered form 
to keep off seme insects. A more common and effective way of 
using it, is as a decoction in water at the rate of one pound of 
tobacco stems, leaves or dust to two gallons of water. The 
tobacco should be boiled in the water for twenty minutes. When 
cold the decoction should be used undiluted with a syringe, spray 
or otherwise. The decoction will not keep more than a few days 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



87 



without spoiling. Tobacco is an excellent fertilizer as well as 
insecticide. 

Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide. It kills by con- 
tact and is of greatest importance for destroying sucking insects 
such as lice, scale insects and soft caterpillars, but also kills 
many biting insects. It is made as follows: 

Kerosene oil, 2 gallons, 67 per cent; common soap, or whale 
oil soap; pound, 33 per cent. 

Two pounds of soft soap may be used in place of the soap 
recommended. 

Dissolve the soap over a brisk fire, remove and add the kero- 
sene while the water is hot. Churn the mixture or stir rapidly 
until a creamlike emulsion is secured. If well made the kero- 
sene will not separate but on cooling the emulsion will thicken 
into a jelly-like paste that adheres without oiliness to the sur- 
face of glass. Soft water will give far better results than hard 
water for making kerosene emulsion, and soap that is made with 
potash or soda lye, such as home made soap, is far better than 
most of the soap of the stores, as they do not emulsify easily. 
For plant lice, dilute the emulsion recommended vnth from 
twenty to twenty-five parts of cold water. The strength of the 
application will necessarily depend on the insects to which it is 
to be applied. For such insects as soft-skinned caterpillars the 
emulsion should be diluted with not more than ten parts of 
water. 

Kerosene and milk emulsion may be used as follows: 



These readily form an emulsion when thoroughly churned 
together. It should be used the same as other soap and kerosene 
emulsion mentioned. Sweet milk does not emulsify readily but 
if a little sour or even if yevy sour, it unites easily with the kero- 
sene. This is the best emulsion where the water is very hard. 

Carbon bisulphide is a very inflammable material with a 
disagreeble odor and readily vaporizes. It should be handled 
with the same precaution as gasoline which resembles it in 
appearance. The fumes which it gives off are very heavy and 
are poisonous to animal life when confined with it. On account 
of these properties it is used for killing weevils in grain or peas, 



Kerosene 
Sour milk 



2 gallons. 
.1 gallon. 



88 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

beans and other seeds, and for killing gophers, mice or other 
creatures in their holes. The method of using it for grain 
weevils, is to fill a barrel or other tight receptacle nearly full of 
seed, then sprinkle on an ounce of the liquid for each one hun- 
dred pounds of seed and cover the vessel tightly for several 
hours. It does not hurt the grain which is just as good and 
looks as nice as ever after being treated. The germinating 
qualities of the seed are not injured by this treatment. Yv^hen 
used for killing moles, gophers and mice, the material should be 
put on cotton or other absorbent and placed in their holes closed 
with earth over the cotton. 

Catching Insects by Light at Night. — By suspending a lan- 
tern at night over a tub of water having its surface coated with 
kerosene many night flying insects can be destroyed. Among 
those that can be caught in this way are cut worm moths, the 
clicking beetle (which is the mature form of the wire worm), 
and the May beetle (which is the mature form of the white 
grub). When these insects become especially abundant this 
method of catching them is worthy of trial. The objections- to 
it are: (1) tnat it is the larvae and not the flying form of these 
insects that do serious injury; (2) few persons are so far sighted 
that they can be persuaded to attack insect enemies until they 
are suffering from their ravages, and the benefits of this method 
will not be felt until perhaps the following year. (3) The obser- 
vations of Dr. Otto Lugger show that insects have generally laid 
their eggs before they fly much, and only the male insects of 
some species fly, and the females are nearly or quite wingless. 
It is obvious that in such cases catching the flying insects will do 
little if any good. 

Applications of Insecticides. — In applying insecticides it is 
generally important to begin their use as soon as the insects 
appear and not wait until the plants have been weakened and 
set back by their attacks. There are many and various machines 
for distributing insecticides. The machine best adapted to this 
purpose will depend much on the insecticide used and the extent 
of the operations contemplated. For applying liquid compounds 
some of the many forms of spray pumps will be found best. 
For the small garden where there is a variety of crops grown, 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



89 



perhaps what is known as knapsack spray pump is as convenient 

as any general purpose ma- 
chine. Where potatoes are 
grown on a large scale some 
special spray pump that can be 
geared to the wheels of a wag- 
on may often be the best to 
use. Where insecticides are 
used in powder form it is a 
good plan to scatter them on 
the plants through a coarse lin- 
en bag or fine wire cloth. When 
such material needs to be eject- 
ed with force, a fan or bellows 
may be used. It is always best 
to use poisons in a liquid form 
when practicable since it is the 
most economical and effective 
method of applying them. No 
insecticide should ever be used 
in a large way, until it has 
been tried on a small scale to 
see what its effect vdll be on 
the crop to be treated, since 
plants may be more susceptible 
at one time than at another to 
applications of this nature. 

COMMON GARDEN INSECTS AND METHODS OP 
DESTROYING THEM. 
The Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decemlineata.) — 
The Colorado potato beetle is so common and so well known by 
every farmer and gardener in this country that it needs no 
description here. It came originally from the Rocky Mountain 
region v\^here it fed on the native sandbur (Solanum rostratum) 
which is closely allied to the potato, but when this insect came to 
know the cultivated potato it preferred it to its original food 
and has since become a very dangerous pest to this vegetable. 
The orange ..olored eggs, varying in number from a dozen to 
fifty, are generally laid on the under side of the pota^to leaf. 




T'igure 34. — Colorado potato bee- 
tle in all stages. 



90 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



They hatch in about a week into sluggish larvae which feed upon 
the leaves, never leaving a plant until all the leaves are gone. 
They also feed to some extent upon tomato and egg plants. When 
fully developed the larvae descend to the ground where they 
pupate and emerge as perfect beetles. There are three broods 
each season. The beeUes winter over in potato lields. 

Remedies. — The number of these pests varies greatly from 
year to year. The chief remedies are arsenical poisons applied 
to the foilage. For this purpose Paris green and London purple 
are commonly used. The method of applying them varies much. 
It is a common practice to use one pound of Paris green tc 150 
gallons of water. This must be constantly agitated while in use 
or the poison wiil settle to the bottom of the vessel. London 
purple may also be applied in water, but as it varies- somewhat 
in composition and is liable to contain a dangerous amount 
of free acid, it is safest to use with it an equal amount of milk 
of lime. It is also a good plan to use milk of lime with Paris 
green. Some experiments show that about one pound of lime, 
one pound London purple and about seventy gallons of water, is 
a safe and satisfactory formula to use for this crop. When thus 
applied the work may be done with a spraying machine, a water- 
ing pot or brush broom, but the spray pump is the most eco- 
nomical. On a large scale, some kind of a spraying apparatus 
is necessary. 

These poisons may also be safely applied when mixed with 
one hundred times their bulk of flour, sifted ashes or road dust 
or mixed with one hundred pounds of land plaster. When thus 
used they are easily applied by means of a coarse linen bag. 
There are a number of proprietary insecticides for the potato 
beetle but they generally depend for their success on the arsenic 
they contain. But no matter what insecticide is applied, in order 
to do the most good it should be used as soon as the young larvae 
can be seen on the leaves. 

The Imported and Native Cabbage Worm (Pieris sp.). — 
The imported cabbage worm resembles our native species and 
both of them are very destructive to cabbage, turnip, cauliflower 
and similar vegetables and to such flowering plants as mignon- 
ette, stocks and nasturtiums. They feed on the leaves and 
will often destroy the cabbage crop unless preventive measures 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



91 



are taken. The worms of the imported species are green in 
color, while our native species are bluish with yellow stripes. 
The butterflies of both species are much alike. They are gener- 






Fiff, 35. • Imported Cabbage W^rm.' . fa] ta^vae. (b) Chrysalis, ic) Male 

butterfly. 

ally white with indefinite black marks above and yellow or green 
markings on the underside, 
and are commonly seen flit- 
ting over fields of cabbage or 
of other of its food plants 
during the day time. The full 
grown caterpillar is about 
an inch and a half long. 
The winter is passed in the 
chrysalis stage hidden away 
in sheltered places and from 

these the adult butterfly emerges in the spring and lays her eggs 
on the under side of the leaves where they hatch in about one 
week. There are several broods in a season. 

Remedies. — Pyrethrum powder, mixed with five times its 
bulk of fiour and dusted into the cabbage just at nightfall is 
a good rem^edy. The flour should be mixed with the pyrethrum 
overnight. In a small way hand picking may be successfully 
resorted to. If the worms are troublesome where cabbage is 
grown on a large scale it is customary to use arsenical poison 
mixed with flour as recommended for the potato bug. The poison 
canuot be applied in" water as it will not stick to the leaves. 



92 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Tiiese, it is evident to anyone, can be safely applied before the 
plants commence to head, and recent careful trials and analy- 
ses of cabbage thus treated with Paris green, show there is very 
little danger in using it at any stage of the plants. It is the sim- 
plest of remedies and effective yet not dangerous. There are 
parasites that attack and kill the worms and chrysalides, and Dr. 
Lugger has shown clearly that they sometimes may be destroyed 
very rapi-dly by disease as well as insect parasites. It is not 
uncommon to have nearly all these worms die in the latter part 
of any season from one or both of these causes. 

Cabbage Piusia. (Plusia brassicae.) — The cabbage plusia eats 
irregular holes in the leaves, and burrows into the heads of 
the cabbage. The parent insect is a moth of a dark-gray color 




Figure 37. — Snapping beetle or wire worm with larva.e. 



distinguished by a silver mark on each wing. The eggs are laid 
on the upper surface of the leaves singly or in clusters. They 
soon hatch into pale green translucent worms, marked with 
paler longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. When fuii 
grown these are about two inches long. They resemble spai 
worms in their mode of locomotion, hence are easily distinguished 
from the cabbage worm. The full grown caterpillar spins a 
cocoon, generally on the under side of the cabbage leaf, in which 
it undergoes its changes. The insect winters over in the pupal 
state. The remedies for this pest are the same as those 



INJURIOUS INSECTS, 93 

recommended for cabbage worms and it is also subject to dis- 
eases and parasites. 

Wire Worms or Drill Worms (Elator). — Wire worms cause 
damage by boring into potatoes and some seeds in the ground. 
They are the larvae of a snapping or clicking beetle, so called 
from the ease with v/hich, if laid on their backs, they spring 
into the air with a clicking noise. The larvae are slender wire- 
like worms having a glassy tough skin of a yellowish or brown- 
ish color. The larvae stage lasts for two and possibly five years; 
it is therefore no small job to clear a piece of land badly in- 
fested with the pest. Naturally, wire worms live in grass land 
where the harm they do is not apparent, but when such land is 
planted to corn or potatoes and the worms are thus depived of 
their natural food they may become very troublesome. 

Remedies. — Late fall plowing is desirable for land infested 
with wire worms since it exposes and thus kills all that are 
ready to pupate. By clean summer fallowing the land one season 
the worms are starved out, if no plants whatever are permitted 
to grow on it. 

Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.). — Cut worms often cause serious 
injury by eating vegetable plants. They are generally most in- 




Figure 38. — Cut worm and moth. 



jurious while the plants are small, when they often bite off 
young cabbage, bean, corn or other plants close to or just under 
the ground and thus destroy them. Their work is most percep- 
tible in the spring on account of the small amount of growing 
vegetation at that time, yet they also work in the autumn. True 
cut worms are the larvae of several night flying moths which 
appear late in summer. The female deposits her eggs late in 
the summer. These soon hatch into worms which enter the 



94 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



ground and live near the surface on the tender 7. )ots of grass 
and other plants until the approach of cold weather. They then 
descend deeper into the ground and remain torpid until spring, 
when they come to the surface and again commence their depre- 
dations. Cut worms w^hen full grown, are from one and a quarter 
to one and three-quarter inches long and rather large in diameter 
as compared with the length. Their skin is of some dull color, 
smooth, with often dull stripes and bands. 

Remedies. — Cut worms are most injurious in sod land or land 
on which weeds have been permitted to grow in autumn, or in 
land adjacent thereto. They are not liable to winter over on any 
land that is kept free from weeds and grass in autumn, since 
there is no food for them in such places. The worms feed almost 
entirely by night and hide during the day time under clods or 
just under the surface of the ground near where they have 
been working. In a small way they may be dug out and destroy- 
ed, but in fields and on a large scale this is impossible and a good 
remedy is to scatter baits of poisoned clover through the fields. 
This is easily prepared by dipping clover into Paris green or Lon- 
don purple and water. A dough made of bran and Paris green 
sprinkled about the plants will often be found very satisfactory 
in destroying cut worms, and sometimes will work even better 
than clover for this purpose. Where cut worms are abundant a 
larger amount than usual of seed should be planted that a good 
stand may be secured even if the worms do get some oi it. 
When plants such as cabbage, cauliflower and tomatoes are plant- 
ed out, it is a good plan to wrap the plants with pieces of stout 
paper extending about an inch below and three inches above 
the ground. When boxes or tomato cans are set around plants 
for shade, they afford a good/protection from this pest. Protec- 
tion from cut worms to hills of melons, cucumbers and similar 
plants, may be given by pieces of pasteboard or tin. These 
should be cut about three inches wide and sufficiently long to 
encircle the hill. They should be set about an inch deep in the 
ground. Spraying the plants with London purple or Paris green 
is a good remedy. The moths of cut worms, as well as such 
insects as adult wire worms and grub worms may be killed at 
night by means of a lantern suspended over a tub of water having 
a little kerosene on its surface. This should be done late in the 
summer when the moths of cut worms are abundant. 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



95 




Figure 39— Striped 
cucumber beetle. 



Striped Cucumber Beetle. (Diabrotica vittata.) — This little 
beetle attacks squashes, cucumbers and melons 
when they are young. By eating the foliage 
and tender stems they may cause the death of 
the young plants. When abundant it is a very 
difficult pest to combat. It appears in the spring 
at just about the time the young squash plants 
are out of the ground, having wintered over in brush piles or 
other places affording protection. The beetle lays its eggs on the 
roots of corn where the young do considerable damage. These 
worms, are full grown in about one month from hatching 
They then leave the roots, make a little cavity in the earth near 
by, and undergo their changes. The insects spend the winter In 
the beetle stage. The beetle is about a quarter of an inch long 
and is striped with yellow and black. It is very quick in its 
movements but does not fly much except in the middle of the 
day. 

Remedies. — An extra amount of seed should be sown so as 

to secure a good stand 
and still allow some for 
the beetles. Dusting the 
vines, stems and leaves 
when they are moist, 
with air slaked lime, 
road dust or similar 
material containing a 
little Paris green or 
other poison, is quite a 
protection, and if per- 
sistently followed up aft- 
er every rain will gen- 
erally prevent serious 
loss. But care should 
be taken to put the dust 
on the stems as well as 
the leaves. Paris green 
and water is also a good 

Figure 40-Cheese cloth screen for protecting remedy and is applied 
cucumber, squashes and melon vines from ^^iq same aS for tho 
the striped beetle when young. 




96 VEGETABLE GARDENING, 

potato beetle. Tobacco dust is also an excellent preventative 
used in this way. Some gardeners having quite extensive plant- 
ings, and many who are working in a small way, prefer to cover 
each hill with a box or frame covered with cheese cloth. In this 
case, the edges of the box or frame should be sunk an inch or so 
in the ground to keep out the bugs. Frames for this purpose are 
readily made of barrel hoops cut in halves and fastened together 
or of three slender sticks forming a sort of tent. This method 
allows the light and air to circulate freely around the plants, 
while at the same time they are perfectly protected and at slight 
cost. 

White Grub or May 
Beetles (Lachnosterna 
fuse a. — The insect 
known as the white 
grub is the larval stage 
of the May beetle. It 
lives in the land where 
it feeds on the roots of 
plants. The mature in- 
sect is a dark brown 
beetle, often nearly 
black with breast cover- 
ed with yellowish hairs. 
The body is three- 
fourths of an inch long 
and about a half inch in 
diameter. They fly at 
night and are well- 
known insects of the 
spring of the year. As 
beetles they feed on the 
leaves of various plants. 
The females lay their 
eggs among the grass 
roots in a ball of earth. 
These hatch in about a 
month and the grubs be* 
gin to feed on the roots near by. It requires two or three years 
for the grubs to get their full growth and they then undergo their 




Figure 41. — May beetles at night. 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



97 



changes and emerge in the spring of the third or fourth year as 
the beetle described. 

Remedies. — The grubs are eaten by birds, moles and skunks. 
They are not apt to be abundant in any but grass land recently 
broken up. They are exceedingly hard to destroy on account of 
their remaining so long in the soil. When young plants are seen 
to be wilting from the effects of the grub, they may sometimes 
be taken up, the grub removed and the plant reset. When lawns 
or other grass lands are badly affected they should be broken up 
and grown in some cultivated crop for two years. The beetles 
should be trapped when they become very abundant as recom- 
mended for cut worm moths. Such animals as moles and shrews 
should generally be permitted or even encouraged m our lawns 
and gardens and the little damage they generally do suffered 
patiently, since they are among our best friends and destroy im- 
mense numbers of white grubs and other insects that live in the 
ground and are difficult for us to reach. They are seldom 
abundant except where insects are numerous. 



and hatch out in about two weeks into maggots, that commence 
to feed at once and finally become one-half inch long; these 



1 



Maggots (Anthomyia 
sp.) — They are often de- 
structive to the seed or 
roots of a variety of plants 
including onions, cabbage, 
cauliflower and similar 
plants; they also attack the 
seed of corn, peas, beans 
and other vegetables in 




some seasons. 



Life History. — The mag- 
got here referred to is the 
larvae of a fly somewhat 
resembling the house fly, 
but brown in color. The 
eggs are laid in cr near the 
surface of the ground, gen- 
erally on the food plants 



figure 42. — Bean and onion mag- 
gots on young bean plants. 



98 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

change in two weeks more to flies. This insect winters over iv, 
the pupa state in the ground. 

Remedies.— When this insect attacks onions the infested 
plant turns yellow and looks sickly and they should be pulled 
and destroyed. The same treatment should be given to any 
onions that may be found infested at harvest time. When onion 
land becomes badly infested with this pest crop rotation should 
be practiced and no onions should be raised near it for a year 
or two. When beans, corn and peas are affected, the seed should 
be treated with a very thin coating of coal tar and afterwards 
rolled in plaster or other dust. The coal tar may be applied as 
follows: Spread the grain out in a warm room on the floor 
about six inches deep and wet it with warm water; sprinkle on a 
very little warm coal tar (about one tablespoonful to one-half 
bushel) until each grain is coated; then roll it in plaster to 
dry it off. If this is carefully done the grains will not stick 
together and may be planted by seed planter. This treatment 
also prevents crows, gophers and squirrels from pulling newly 
planted corn. 

When it attacks cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants it 
may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, since the maggots work 
on the stem and roots of the plant near the surface of the 
ground and such an application would be practicable in this 
case, while in the case of many other crops such as onions, 
beans, etc., it might be quite out of the question on account of 
the large number of plants that would have to be treated to 
make it effectual. In the case of cabbage however It may be 
prevented from entering by inserting the plant through a small 
piece of tarred paper, that is allowed to remain flat on the sur- 
face of the ground. 

Cabbage Flea Beetle (Halticus sp.) — There are several in- 
sects closely resembling each other and known as cabbage flea 
beetles that feed on the surface of the leaves of cabbage, tur- 
nips, radish, cauliflower, etc., and various wild plants. They 
are very injurious to the very young plants if allowed to have 
their way, but when the plants are nicely started they do not 
seem to be seriously incommoded by this pest. These beetles 
are very small and move very quickly. The adult insect is 
black or nearly so; some of them lay their eggs near the roots 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 99 

of the food plants, where the larvae do some damage; in other 
cases the eggs are laid on the under side cf the leaves and the 
larvae mine into them and live between the upper and lower 
surfaces. But their chief damage is as beetles, in which form 
they pass the winter. One species of flea beetle is sometimes 
destructive to potato vines. 




Figure 43. — Different species of flea beetles with their larvae. 



Remedies. — Since thcSe are biting insects they are readily 
killed by Paris green or London purple in the usual propor- 
tions. If the plants are kept dusted with air slaked lime or 
plaster they are measurably protected from this insect. But the 
latter applications are greatly improved by adding a little poison 
to them. 

Leaf Lice or Aphides (Aphis sp.) — The various kinds of 
leaf lice, otherwise called aphides, that live on plants have very 
much the same general habits. They are all sucking insects and 
increase with great rapidity when their food plants are abund- 



Lof C. 



100 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

ant. They generally winter over in the egg state. The summer 
broods are often brought forth alive without the intervention 
of the egg state. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water are 
the usual remedies, but hot water and pyrethrum will also de- 
stroy them. Leaf lice are eaten by the larvae of lady bugs and 
they are also subject to attacks of parasites. When the lice 
are coated with a meal-like covering that sheds water and pre- 
vents their being wet by insectides, they should first be sprayed 
with strong soap suds to remove the mealy covering and then 
the insecticide may be applied successfully. 

Cabbage Lice or Aphides (Aphis brassicae). — These are 
light brown insects covered with a floury substance. They at- 
tack turnips, cauliflower, rutabagas and similar plants, as well 
as the cabbage. They work generally on the lower side of the 
leaves where they collect most abundantly. They are most 
numerous in dry seasons. The remedies for them are those given 
under the general head of leaf lice but in addition to those it 
is a good plan to burn or compost all the old cabbage leaves 
and stumps, since the eggs winter over attached to them. 

Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm (Heliophila unipucta.) — 
This is the boll-worm of the south. It eats into the green grain 
of the corn. But is seldom very troublesome at the north. Dr. 
Lugger thinks that it does not winter over in the extreme north- 
ern states, but that the moths come from the south each year. 
The only remedy is hand picking. It is doubtful if they will 
ever become very injurious in the northern states, since they do 
not begin their work there until late in the season. 

Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar (Papilio asterias.) — This 
worm eats the foliage of celery, carrot, parsley and allied plants, 
but is not very often injurious. The mature insect is a beautiful 
large black butterfly having yellow and blue spots on its wings. 
The eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch into small caterpil- 
lars less than one-tenth of an inch long, which when full grown 
are one and a half inches long. It has bright yellow mark- 
ings. The remedy is to hand pick the worms, which are seldom 
abundant 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



101 



Chinch Bugs (Blissus leucopteris.) — The chinch bug does 
it trouble any of our, garden products except corn, but is some- 



Remedies. — The burning of rubbish accumulations along 
headlands, fences, etc., in the winter or early spring in infested 
localities will destroy many. They always infest the small 
grains before they do corn. 

While these insects have wings they use them but little in 
their migration in summer, but they travel on foot and often m 
great numbers. Taking advantage of these peculiarities they 
may be kept from corn fields by plowing deep furrows in their 
way*, which should be turned back as soon as filled with bugs 
and new furrows made. Fences of boards six inches high with 
the upper edge kept covered with tar will keep them out, but 
holes in the ground should be made at intervals along the line 
of the boards, which when full of bugs should t)e filled in with 
earth, and new holes made. A dusty headland or road is very 
difficult for them to go through. If they finally reach the corn 
they will readily succumb to kerosene emulsion. Much is being 
done to rid the grain fields of this pest by infecting the bugs 
with disease. This works most rapidly in moist weather, but 
other remedies should not be put aside for this one. 

Bean and Pea Weevil (Bruchus sp.) — The insects known 
as weevil are quite common in some sections. They work in 
the seed of beans and peas. The adult insects are small beetles 
which lay their eggs in the flowers where they soon hatch and 




I 



times very injurious to this vegetable and 
may kill it in a very few days if neglected. 
This is a sucking insect that winters over 
in the adult state under leaves and in dry pro- 
tected places generally. When full grown 
it is about one-seventh of an inch long with 
Vv^hite upper wings which have two well de- 
fined black spots on them. When crushed 
they have an offensive bed-bug-like odor, 
This insect is not affected tiy cold weather, 
but succumbs quickly to moisture. The fe- 
male deposits her eggs near the ground upon 
the stem or roots of wheat, oats, grasses, etc. 



102 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

the young larvae eat their way into the immature seeds. The 
hole by which the larva enters the seed grows completely over, 
so that the seed appears unimpaired externally. In the seed the 
larva does not touch the germ, though it may eat up a large 
part of the starch. The larva undergoes its changes in the 
seed, and when these have been completed the beetles emerge 
through quite large holes in the shell of the seed. While seed 
that is infested may germinate it forms only weak plants that 
are very sure to fail to mature a full crop. Similar insects also 
attack corn. There is another speeies that breeds in stored 
grain, peas and beans, etc., but it is not common here as yet. 

Remedies. — These insects are generally somewhat local in 
range. Whenever any locality is infested the date of planting 
should be delayed two weeks, by which means the beetle fail to 
find the crop ready when they are ready to lay their eggs. This 
trouble generally comes from sowing infested seeds. These 
may be separated from the good seed by throwing them into 
water, when the good will sink, but those infested will float. 
'Another method is to treat the seed with carbon bisulphide as 
recommended under that head. If the seed is kept over two 
years the beetles will have come out. The species that breeds 
in the grain is most easily destroyed and kept out of the seed 
by using bisulphide of carbon as recommended. 

Squash Vine Borer (Aegeria cucurbitae.) — The squash vine 
borer is the larva of a moth. The eggs are laid on the stems 
of the young plants near the roots of cucumber, squash and melon 
vines. The larvae on hatching burrow into the stem and follow 
along the center, which causes the plants to wilt an'^. finally to 
die. The full grown borer measures about one inch in length 
and has a whitish body with a brown head. The borers leave 
the stem the latter part of the summer and winter over near 
the surface of the ground in cocoons composed partly of earth. 
The moth emerges the following spring. 

Remedies. — This insect is not yet found in this section but 
is common in the eastern states, and where it is found ail 
withered or dead vines should be destroyed. When vines have 
only commenced to wilt the borer may often be cut out and 
the vine recover. It is also a good plan to cover several of the 



INJURIOUS INSECTS. 



103 



lower joints of squash vines with earth to encourage the for- 
mation of extra sets of roots at these places. 

The Squash Bug (Anasa tristis.) — This insect makes its 
appearance the latter part of June or the first of July. The 
females deposit their brownish-yellow eggs in small patches on 
the under side of the leaves. These hatch into nymphs that suck 
the sap of the leaves, often seriously injuring them. The full 
grown bug is a little over one-half inch long and a rusty black 
color above and yellowish beneath. They emit a disagreeable 
odor when touched. They winter over in rubbish, under boards 
or anywhere they can find protection. 

Remedies. — Hand picking in the morning and evening at 
which times the bugs are somewhat torpid, is the most practical 
remedy. Boards laid among the plants at night will be found to 
have many bugs under them in the morning, and these may be 
crushed or otherwise destroyed. Large numbers may be killed 
in this way. 



for each, 
2. 

Emulsion, 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VII. 

1. Name two biting and two sucking insects and two remedies 



What is Pyrethrum, Paris Green, London Purple, Kerosene 

Tobacco, Carbon Bi-sulpliide ? 
How are each applied? Formula for using. 
What are objections to catching insects at night by a light? 



How are 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1: 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 
Give the 1: 
Give the 1 
Give the 1 



nsecticides applied? 

fe history of Colorado potato belle and remedies, 

fe history of cabbage worm and remedies, 

fe history of cabbage phes'a and remedies, 

fe hist-ory of wire worms and remedies, 
ife history of cut W3rms and remedies, 

fe history of striped cucumber beetle and remedies, 

fe history of white grub and remedies, 

fe history of maggots and remedies, 

fe history of cabbage flea beetle and remedies, 

fe history of leaf lice and remedies, 

fe history of cabbage lice and remedies, 

fe history of parsley worm and remedies, 

fe history of chinchbug and remedies, 

fe history of bean-pea weevil and remedies, 

fe history of squash vine lover and remedies, 

fe history of squash bug and remedies. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



GARDEN VEGETABLES. 

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES. 

Vegetables may be classified in many ways, but perhaps the 
most helpful way is to divide them according to the conditions 
under which they grow best into (1) warm and (2) cold climate 
vegetables: 

(1) Among warm climate vegetables (often called tropical) 
we have tomato, corn, beans, pepper, egg plant, cucumber, musk 
melon, watermelon, squash, pumpkin, and okra. These plants all 
require hot weather for their growth, are severely injured by first 
hard frost and should not be planted in open ground until warm 
weather is assured. They are generally at their best on a warm 
southern exposure and in soil having a little sand in its com- 
position. These plants are all natives of hot climates and will 
not survive long in cold climates when left to themselves. 

(2) Among cold climate vegetables, we have practically all 
those commonly grown not mentioned above (1) such as aspara- 
gus, rhubarb, horseradish, safsify and parsnip, which stand our 
severest winters without injury, and those that are less hardy, 
such as onions, leeks, peas, beets, spinach, cabbage, Brussels 
sprouts, cauliflower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga, 
turnip, carrot, parsley, celery, celariac, lettuce, endive, potato, 
strawberry, tomato, and others. These all grow well at a cool 
temperature and most of them will stand some frost without 
injury. They may be divided into those with tops that are frost 
hardy or frost tender as follows: 

By frost tender is meant those whose tops are injured by 
a light hard frost such as potato, asparagus, strawberry, tomato, 
and of course all the tropical plants mentioned above (1). 
Some plants like asparagus and our native oak tree may have 
foliage that is very susceptible to frost but are hardy in winter. 



MUSHROOM. 



105 



By frost hardy is meant those having foliage that Is not 
Injured by light frost, such as horseradish, rhubarb, onions, leeks, 
garlic, peas, spinach, beets, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauli- 
fiower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga, turnip, carrot, 
parsley, celery, lettuce, endive and most of the garden herbs. 

Botanical Classification. — All plants may be divided into fam- 
ilies, each of which has its distinguishing features. Our garden 
vegetables and herbs belong to at least seventeen families. The 
special features of each of which will be found with the cultural 
directions for the plants grouped under them, but for convenience 
a list Is here given of all the vegetables referred to herein, ar- 
ranged under their proper family names: 

The Fungi Group or Family, mushrooms or toadstools. 

The Grass Family (Gramineae), corn. 

The Lily Family (Liliaceae) asparagus, onion, leeks, garlic. 
The Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae), rhubarb or pie 
plant. 

The Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), beet, Swiss chard 
and spinach. 

The Cabbage Family (Cruciferae), cabbage, cauliflower, rad- 
ishes, rutabaga, turnip, Brussels sprouts, kale, kohl rabi, horse 
radish, cress and watercress. 

The Clover Family (Leguminosae), beans and peas. 

The Mallow Family (Malvaceae), okra. 

The Parsnip Family (Umbelliferae), parsnip, parsley, carrot, 
celery, calariac, caraway, dill, anise, coriander and fennel. 

The Morning Glory Family (Convolvulaceae), sweet potato. 

The Mint Family (Labiatae), sweet basil, lavender, balm, 
spearmint, peppermint, summer savory, winter savory, sweet 
marjoram, thyme, sage and catnip. 

The Potato Family (Solanaceae) , tomato, potato, egg plant, 
peppers and strawberry tomato. 

The Martynia Family (Martiniaceae), Martynia. 

The Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae), cucumber, squash, 
muskmelons, watermelons, pumpkin and gourd. 

The Sunflower Family (Compositae), lettuce, salsify, endive 
and dandelion. 



106 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



The Rue Family (Rutaceae), rue. 
The Borage Family (Boraginaceae), borage^ 
THE FUNGI. 

The Fungi group includes a large number of flowerless 
plants which, are propagated by division and by spores. Besides 
the cultivated and wild mushrooms, which are below referred 
to, this group includes some that are poisonous, although they 
form but a small proportion of the whole number of species 
that are liable to be taken for edible kinds. The wheat rusts, 
mildews, grain smuts and other similar diseases also come in 
under this head. The spores (seed bodies) are distributed in 
various ways, but very commonly by their becoming light and 
powdery and being blown about by the wind as in the case of 
the c@mmon puff ball and com smut. There is no sure way of 
telling the poisonous mushroom from the edible kinds but most 
of the species have been studied and their value for food is well 
known. 

MUSHROOMS. (Agaricus campestris.) 

There are many edible wild mushrooms, and they differ in 
no particular from the so-called toadstools, but the species re- 
ferred to above is the kind commonly cultivated. The part 
eaten is really the fruit bearing portion and not, as many sup- 
pose, the plant itself. The true plant is the whita network of 
fibres which grow in the soil, and it Is this part that is used in 
propagating them. 

Culture. — The cultivation of the mushroom is often attended 
with uncertainty. It is, however, being grown on an increas- 
ingly larger scale, and the demand for it constantly increases. 
The conditions essential to success in growing it are a rich 
soil and a steady temperature of from 50 to 75 degrees. It is for 
\he purpose of securing this latter requisite that cellars and old 
caves are often utilized in its culture, as light Is not necessary. 
Horse manure is a practically indispensable material for the 
growth of mushrooms. If possible, it should be from animals 
Sed on rich, nitrogenous food and as free from straw or other 
litter as it can be obtained. This should be thoroughly mixed 
with a fourth or fifth part of good garden soil and is then ready 



MUSHROOM. 107 

to go into the beds. Care should he taken that the beds are in a 
well drained damp place. They may be of any size or shape de- 
sired but should be about ten inches deep. Some of the largest 
growers use tiers of shelves or boxes, each one of which is 
eight or ten inches deep, into which they put the soil. What- 
ever the shape of the beds, the soil should be packed into them 
firmly and evenly and be left smooth on the outside. A ther- 
mometer should then be inserted in the center of the mass. As 
soon as fermentation sets in, tl^.e temperature will rise until 
probably over 100 degrees will be indicated, and when it falls to 
80 degrees the bed is ready to receive the spawn. This may 
sometimes be obtained from old mushroom beds, but it is best to 
depend on that sold by seedsmen, as it is more certain to be free 
from other fungi. The operation of spawning consists in put- 
ting pieces of the spawn bricks the size of small hens' eggs in 
holes made about two inches deep and ten or twelve mches apart. 
Afterwards the holes should be filled with the soil and the sur- 
face firmed and smoothed off. 

If the work has been well done and the conditions are fav- 
orable, the spawn should commence to grow in seven or eigiit 
days; at the end of that time it should be examined and any 
pieces that have not started should be removed and be replacec" 
by fresh spawn. A failure in germination is indicated by tho 
absence of white threads in the manure around the spawn. 
When the spawn has nicely started and begins to show itself 
on the surface, the bed should be covered with a layer one inch 
thick of fine, slightly moist soil, which should be pressed down 
smoothly and firmly. In damp cellars mushroom beds do not 
need water, but if the surface gets dry they should be watered 
with tepid water from a fine rose watering pot. The mush- 
rooms should show in from five to eight weeks, and the bed 
continue to yield for two or three months. The spawn bricks, 
as they are termed by seedsmen, are simply flat square pieces 
of a mixture of manure and loam into which spawn has been 
put and has grown until it fills the whole piece. Afterwards 
these bricks are dried and form the mushroom bricks or spawn 
of commerce. 

Native Mushrooms. — There are quite a number of native 



108 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

mushrooms that are edible, but since there are also several 
poisonous kinds one should be careful about trying unknown 
sorts. Among the edible kinds are the several sorts known as 
puff balls (Lycoperdon). When these first appear, they are 
white balls of a fleshy texture with little or no stalks; as they 
ripen the flesh turns gradually to a dark brown, and finally 
the spores are ejected by the ball being crushed or naturally 
breaking open. They are not fit to eat after the flesh begins 
to turn brown. The smaller sorts are most common, but the 
giant puff ball is occasionally met with and is often ten or more 
inches in diameter. 

Another common native mushroom is shown in figure 45. 



Figure 45. — Native Mushrooms. On the left is shown the giant puff 
ball (Lycoperdon giganteum) ; on the right Maned Agaric (Coprin- 
us comatus), in various stages of maturity. 

It has a stem several inches high, but the top does not expand 
and is one of the most delicious of all the mushroom tribe when 
young. It is called the Maned Agaric (Coprinus comatus.) It 
grows in waste and grassy places, lawns and meadows. The 
gills (layers on the under part of the head) are at first white 
or pink, melting into an inkj^ fluid-like substance when more 
mature. 

Little attention has ever been paid in this country to 
growing our native species. They could undoubtedly be propa* 
gated by digging up some of the earth where they grow abun- 
dantly and mixing it with the soil where it is desired to grow 



THE GRASS FAMILY. 



109 



them. The kinds mentioned mature in the latter part of sum- 
mer and are especially abundant in old pastures or other places 
containing much decaying organic matter and during moist 
weather. If an attempt was made to grow them, it would prob- 
ably be necessary to keep the ground moist all summer to se- 
cure the best results. 

THE GRASS FAMILY. (Oder Gramineae.) 
The Grass Family has many well known general character- 
istics. It includes many species and produces the greater part 
of the food of the human race either directly as seed or indirect- 
ly as meat and yet only corn is ordinarily grown in vegetable 
gardens. Among the most important food plants belonging here 
are wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, corn, sorghum and sugar cane. 
The wild rice grows in great abundance in some portions of this 
state and is an important article of food among the Indians. 

CORN. (Zea mays.) 
Native of America. — Annual. The male flowers are in the 
tassel and the female flower on the cob. While cross-fertiliza- 
tion is not absolutely necessary far the production of seed, it 
is necessary for a good crop. The varieties of corn may be 
easily grouped under four classes: (1) Sweet corn, which in- 
cludes varieties with soft and generally much wrinkled kernels, 
that are especially desirable for use in a green state on ac- 
coant of their being sweeter and more delicate in flavor than 
other kinds. (2) Flint corn, which includes fleld varieties hav- 
ing a very hard, smooth grain. (3) Dent corn, which includes 
field varieties rather softer in texture than the flint corn, each 
kernel having a depression in the end of it. (4) Pop corn, which 
has a kernel of flinty hardness and is used almost entirely for 
popping purposes. These classes will all cross together. But 
there are numerous verieties in each of the classes varying from 
one another in height of stalk, size and color of the ear and ker- 
nel, time of ripening and various minor particulars. The color 
of the grains may be white, yellow, red or purple, but white and 
yellow are most common. Corn is quickly improved by judi- 
cious selection, and new varieties are frequently originated in 
this way. 



V 



110 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Cultivation. — For early use, the seed should be sown as soon 
as the ground begins to get warm in the spring. Very early 
planting is not desirable for the main crop, since in cold, wet 
weather the seed is liable to rot in the ground, or the plants 
may be frozen on coming up. It may, however, be desirable to 
plant some of the earliest kinds as soon as the weather is 
warm, and, selecting the most favorable location, run the risk 
of failure, as the profits are correspondingly large if the crop 
is very early, while the expense of planting is a small matter. 
The main crop of corn should be planted from the middle to 
the last of May. The land can hardly be too ric" for corn, 
and it should be in a finely pulverized condition. The seed 
may be planted in rows at about nine-inch intervals, with rows 
three to four feet apart, or in hills three to four feet apart 
each way, according to the growth of the plants and method of 
cultivation to be followed. It should be covered above two inches. 
If grown in hills, three or four plants should be left in a place, 
which means planting about six seeds to the hill. If planted in 
hills, they may be cultivated both ways, which is an advantage 
over planting in rows. In rows, however, the plants develop 
rather better than in hills, and it is the method preferred by 
many good growers, though field corn is generally planted in 
hills. Corn should be cultivated shallow and never deep 
enough to cut the roots; until it is six inches high it may be 
harrowed with a slant tooth harrow. In order to have a long 
season of this vegetable in its best condition for table use, plant- 
ings of the very early and some good second early kind should be 
made at the same time; and then plantings of the second early 
kinds should be made once in two weeks, thereafter up to about 
the twentieth of June. If planted later than this there is much 
doubt about its getting laige enough for table use before the 
autumn frosts set in. The very early kinds, however, may be 
planted in this section as late as the fourth of July, with good 
prospects of their becoming of marketable size; but the very 
early varieties are small in size and not as sweet and desirable 
as the larger second early or late kinds, and a few varieties re- 
quire the whole season in v/hich to obtain table size. If properly 
planted, sweet corn may be had in a young and tender condition 
from the middle of July until the cold weather of autumn. 



CORN. 



Ill 



Marketing. — There is a large demand for green corn in 
every city and village. It is marketable as soon as the kernels 
are well formed and is generally sold in the husk, by the doz- 
en or by the barrel. There are several canning factories in this 
section and many in other parts of the country that make a 
specialty of canning sweet corn. Grown for this purpose cr 
for evaporating, it is a farm crop that may be made to pay 
very well in some locations, and extensive tracts of land are de- 
voted to raising it. Where the crop is marketed at canning 
factories the fodder is left on the farm and is in admirable 
condition for feeding. The ears are best for table use when 
first picked and quickly lose in quality after gathering; if they 
heat in piles or packages they are of very inferior quality. 

Varieties. — For very early use the White or Red Cob Cory is 
a general favorite and is probably earlier than any other kind. 




Figure 46.— Early Cory Corn. 

It will often mature in eight weeks. Early Minnesota is a little 
later, but a much better table variety. For second early and 
mid-season use, Perry's Hybrid, Moore's Concord, Potter's Excel- 
sior and Landreth's Sugar are excellent.' Perhaps the Perry's 
Hybrid is the most popular second early market sort. 

For late use, requiring a long season, Stowell's Evergreen, 
and Egyptian Mammoth are desirable. These kinds have large 
ears and are particularly desirable for canning purposes. The 
Country Gentleman is a peculiar late variety of great merit. The 



112 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

kernels are narrow and long and not arranged in rows but irreg- 
ularly on the ear. It has, perhaps, the smallest cob of any 
known variety. While it requires a long season to get it to 




Fig-lire 47. — I^ate Sweet Corn. 

an edible size, it is of fine quality and very desirable for home 
use. 

Pop corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn. For 
home use, a very little will suflice; in some sections, however, 
it is raised in large quantities. It is usually marketed on the 
cob and is seldom salable until at least one year old. Among 
the best varieties are White Rice and Golden Pop. 

Varieties of corn run out and change very quickly, and there 
is often much difference in the strains of different kinds. Those 
that it is desired to keep pure should be grown at least 1000 
feet away from other kinds that flower at the same period. Va- 
rieties of corn of every description, including all those belonging 
to the sweet, dent, flint and pop corn classes, will mix together 
when near by each other. 

Curing Seed of Sweet Corn. — The seed of the late varieties 



CORN. 



113 



of sweet corn is difficult to cure thoroughly and Is very liable to 
mould during drying process, unless it is given plenty of light 
and air. A good way is to tie the ears in small bunches and 
suspend in a dry, hot, airy room after it has ripened as nearly as 
may be on the stalk. 

Preserving Green Corn. — Green corn is often preserved in a 
small way by cooking and then cutting it from the cob and 
drying it in the sun, oven or evaporator. It is also preserved 
in brine by first cooking it and then treating the same as 
recommended for cucumber pickles. It may also be cut from 
the cob after cooking and packed in a vessel in layers alter- 
nating with salt, using about seven pounds of salt to a bushel 
of kernels. 

Mrs. T. T. Batchelor has been very successful in canning corn 
for winter use as follows: 

When the Stowell's Evergreen corn is ripe, the fresh pulled 
ears are slightly shaved with a sharp knife, so as to take off the 
ends of the kernels. The corn is then scraped from the cob and 
packed solidly in Mason jars. The covers are put on, leaving 
them only a little lose so water will not get in. The cans are 
set in a boiler, covered with cold water, which is brought to 
the boiling point and allowed to boil for two hours. The tops 
are then screwed tight, and they are allowed to boil for two 
hours longer. No water is used with the corn, and no salt. They 
have been very successfuU in keeping it when put up in this way. 

Cutting off the Tassels. — It has been recommended to cut off 
half of the tassels from the young corn, on the ground that 
one-half the tassels would produce all the pollen needed by all 
the kernels. While some experiments have shown this to be 
true, many other experiments show there is little if anything to 
be gained by the practice. • . 

Insects. — Corn is quite free from serious injury, either from 
insects or diseases. The most injurious insects are the cut 
worms and boll worms, for discussion of which see chapter on in- 
sects. 

Smut (Ustilago maydis) is almost the only disease seriously 



114 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



injurious to corn. It is a fungous disease that works in almost 



loss from this cause. It is, however, such an expensive remedy 
as to seem almost impracticable. Some experiments seem tc 
show that soaking the seed in a solution of sulphate of copper 
may assist in preventing this trouble in corn as well as smut ir 
wheat, but other experiments apparently prove the contrary, 
and it may be taken as a dotibtful matter at the best. Prac 
tically, then, we know of no sure remedy for smut in corn. 



The Lily Family is made up of plants that with few excep- 
tions have parallel veined leaves. The flowers are regulai 
and symmetrical with perianth of six parts, six stamens and a 
superior three-celled ovary. Fruit a many-seeded dry pc-d or 
soft berry. Besides the asparagus, onion, garlic and leek, whose 
cultural directions are here given, there occurs in this family the 
tiger and other lilies, the hyacinth, tulip. Spanish bayonet, cen- 
tury plant, smilax, lily of the valley and many other familia: 
flowering plants. 



Fig-ure 4S.— Com Stiut, (UstLlago Mavdis.) 




any part of the plant, 
causing swellings which 
contain black spores. 
When ripe, the swellings 
burst and the spores are 
scattered to continue the 
disease another year. 
There can be no qtiestion 
btit that gathering and 
destroying the bunches 
of f>pores by burning or 
btirying them deeply in 
the ground would result 
in greatly lessening the 



THE LILY -FAMILY. (Order Liliaceae.) 



ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus officinalis.) 



Native of Europe. — Perennial. — The asparagus is an her- 
baceous plant, growing to the height of about four feet. The 



ASPARAGUS. 



lis 



floweirs are small and generally yellow. They are perfect 



fails to produce a crop, is one of the first vegetables to be 
obtained in the spring and may be used until the middle of 
June. Perhaps, no other vegetable is more highly esteemed 
by those who are accustomed to its use. It may be grown 
with success in any good corn land, but is worthy of the best 
of care, as it responds readily to rich manure and high culti- 
vation. On sandy loam the crop is much earlier than on clay 
soils; wet land is not suited to it. 

Propagation. — It grows readily from seed, and one ounce of 
seed is sufficient for about fifty feet of drill and should pro- 
duce with good care about four hundred plants, though no 
particular care is necessary for success. The seed should be 
sown in good soil early in the spring, in drills which may 
be as close as sixteen inches, and it should be covered about 
one inch deep. As asparagus seed starts slowly, it is a good 
plan to sow radishes or other early appearing crops with it, 
so that the rows may be seen and weeding commenced early. 
This practice does not interfere with the growth of the aspara- 
gus as the radishes will be ready for use and out of the way 
before it needs much room. The seedling asparagus toots 




Figfure 49. — Asparag-us plant full grown. 



but in many plants 
the pistils are abor- 
tive, so that only 
about half of the 
plants produce seed. 
The seed is produced 
in spherical berries, 
that are vermilion 
in color when they 
ripen in the autumn. 
The seeds are black 
and triangular, num- 
bering about 1400 to 
the ounce. Asparagus 
is one of the most 
valuable garden veg- 
etables. It is per- 
fectly hardy, never 



116 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



will be large enough for transplanting to the permanent 
plantation when one year old, and it is the best plan to do so, 
but they may be allowed to stand two years in the seed bed. 
The young seedling plants which often come up in or neai 
asparagus beds may be transplanted in July of the first year 
directly to the permanent bed and will do very well if handled 
carefuiiy. At whatever age they are transplanted the plants 
should be dug and set out in the spring or early summer, as 
they are likely to fail when removed in the autumn. Aspar- 




Figure 50.— Asparagus root with edible shoots. 

agus may be increased by dividing the crowns, but this is an 
expensive process, and plants so grown have no peculiar merit 
over those from seed. By buying the plants instead of sow- 
ing the seed to start with, one or two years' time may be saved, 
and frequently it is cheaper to buy the plants than to raise 
them. It is said that plants that do not bear seed produce 



ASPARAGUS. 



117 



more sprouts than those that do. Such plants may be increased 
by divisions. 

Planting. — While asparagus should always be moved in 
the spring, it is not necessary to move it very early, though 
it is better to do so; but it may be successfully transplanted as 
late as the first of June. Any long sprouts that may have 
started should be broken off when the plants are set out. 
The land for planting should be heavily manured, deeply 
plowed and finely pulverized, and it is important to do this 
work well, as asparagus beds well made should last at least 
twenty years. The opinions of different growers as to dis- 
tance between plants vary much. It has been advocated to 
set the plants four feet apart each way and if the soil is re- 
markably fertile this distance will not be too great; if the 
land is not very rich, it is customary to put the plants at in- 
tervals of three feet in rows four feet apart. If a bed for a 
family garden is desired where space is limited, it is probably 
best to set the plants three by three feet apart. About 100 
plants will produce all the sprouts needed in an ordinary home 
garden. 

Depth to Plant. — For ordinary purposes asparagus roots 
should be planted about six inches deep; the aeeper they are 
planted the later they will be about starting in the spring; if 
planted much Icrs than six inches deep, the roots often push up 
to the surface and interfere with cultivation. The plants should 
not be covered to the full depth of six inches at once or tfce 
shoots may never be able to push up to the surface. The fur 
rows should be made with a plow to the proper depth, the plants 
placed in the bottom of the furrow and covered about three 
inches to begin with, and the furrows filled in by after cultiva- 
tion as the tops grow. By the middle of the summer the fur- 
rows should be level full. • . 

Cultivation during the first year can be done almost entirely 
with a horse, though some hand hoeing will be necessary be- 
tween the plants. By autumn of the first year, the tops should 
be three feet high. As soon as they are dead they should be 
cut off close to the ground with a heavy, sharp hoe or similar 
tool, and then the land should have a light plowing or be worked 



118 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



up with a harrow to a depth of four inches. No care need to be 
taken about the plants when cultivating at this season of the 
j^ear, but the whole surface may be cultivated or plowed three 
inches deep as though no crop was in the land. In the spring 
the land should be cultivated as soon as it will work well in 
order that it may warm up quickly. There will be no crop to cut 
until the spring of the third year; a very little, however, may 
be safely cut the second year after planting if the plants do well. 
The cultivation in subsequent years should be very much the 
same as that given above, but in addition, when the crop has 
been all harvested and cutting is to cease, which will be about 
the middle or last of June in the northern states, the whole 
bed should have a thorough cultivation to the depth of three 
inches without regard to the rows, and if manure is to be used 
it should be put on at this time. Under this method of treat- 
ment it is unnecessary to do much hand weeding, and it is 
very easy to keep the soil in the best condition by horse power. 
After the thorough cultivation in June, all the sprouts that come 
up from the roots should be permitted to grow until autumn, 
by that time they should be about five feet high if in good 
soil and will have ripe seed. It is necessary to allow the top 
to grow to this extent in order that plant food may be stored up 
in the roots. Very late cutting weakens the growth of the 
plants. 

Cutting. — When the crop is grown for marketing, it is not 
desirable to cut the shoots until the third season after plant- 
ing the roots; however, in the case of small beds in the gar- 
den where the planter is very anxious to test the fruit of his 
labor, it may be well to note that no harm is liable to come 
from a very slight cutting the second season. The sprouts 
should be cut as they appear in the spring, and all of them 
should be cut when of the proper size, although they may not 
be needed at that time. If permitted to grow they interfere 
with subsequent cutting and prevent the growth of new sprouts. 
They will also be in the way of cultivation later in the season. 
The sprouts are generally cut off about two inches below the 
surface when they are about six inches high above the ground, 
and in this case all but two inches r*f the asparagus is green, 



ASPARAGUS. 



119 



which IkS the right condition for most markets. Some people 
prefer to have white sprouts and in such cases they should be cut 
four or five inches deep in the ground. In case white sprouts 
are wanted it is also a good plan to mound up around the hills 
or to cover them with fine manure to keep the sunlight away 
from the shoots. The time between the cuttings is largely de- 
pendent on the weather. In early spring, if the weather is rather 
cold, the plants may not give more than one cutting per week., 
but later in the season a good cutting will perhaps be secured 
once in two days. A severe frost will kill all the shoots above 
ground but will not injure subsequent cuttings. Asparagus is 



Figure 51. — [Method of bunching asparagus, showing loose sprouts, 
boxes for tying up in and completed bunches. 

marketed by tying the sprouts in bunches, and the size of the 
bunches depends much upon the market and, in some places, 
on the season and whether the supply is plentiful or not. It 
is very desirable, however, to have all the bunches of one size. 
It is preferable to tie the sprouts when they are just a little 
wilted and then set them in water to swell and make the bands 
tight. Ihc shoots will easily keep for a week if kept cold and 
moist. It is customary to stand the bunches on end in water in 
keeping them. 

Manuring. — If manure is applied to the asparagus bed in 
autumn or before the frost is out of the ground in the spring, 
it prevents the frost from coming out of the ground and sc 
keeps back the growth unless the manure applied is very fine 



r ~ 




120 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



and is at once cultivated into the soil. Sometimes such treat- 
ment will keep the sprouts from starting for a week or more 
at a season when it is most relished and the market price is 
the highest. On this account it is an excellent plan to manure 
asparagus in June at the close of the cutting season, as it can 
then be thoroughly cultivated into the soil and does not inter- 
fere in any way with the growth of the plants in the spring. 
Asparagus is a rank feeder and needs lots of manure for the 
best results. Salt may be applied to asparagus to such an 
extent as to kill all the weeds without injuring the plants and 
yet careful experiments seem to show that salt is of no special 
value as a manure for this crop. 

Asparagus seed is readily taken from the fruit in which it 
grows by macerating the fruit in water and then drying it. 

Forcing Asparagus for early use is being done to some ex- 
tent near large cities where it is often a profitable undertak- 
ing. For this purpose the roots must be dug in the fall and 
carefully stored in earth in a cellar. In March, make a good, 
slow hotbed and put the roots in it in good soil. It is im- 
portant to start the roots slowly or the shoots will be spind- 
ling and weak. The roots stored as recommended may also 
be forced into growth in a warm cellar, shed, greenhousee, or a 
part of a permanent bed may be enclosed in glass or cotton 
sheeting. 

Varieties. — There are a number of varieties, and they are 
all desirable when given good cultivation. Among the best 
kinds are Conover's Colossal, Moore's and Palmetto. 

ONIONS. (Allium Cepa.) 
Native of Central or Western Asia. — Biennial, sometimes 
perennial. The original home of the onion is not known. It 
has no true stem, but this is represented by the base of the 
bulb. The form, color and shape of onions vary greatly in dif- 
ferent varieties. The free portion of the leaves is elongated 
and swollen in the lower part. The flowers, which are white 
or Iliac in color, are borne in dense, round heads on long, slen- 
der, hollow stalks; sometimes, instead of flowers, a head of 
small bulbs is produced and no seed at all. This may occur oc- 
casionally in all kinds, but is the almost invariable characteris- 



ONIONS. 



121 



tic of the tree and top onions. The seeds are black, angular 
and flattish. Usually the plant after seeding dies and disap- 
pears entirely, but sometimes seed onions produce peculiar 
pointed bulbs, called cloves, as well as seeds. Such plants may 
be considered perennial as well as the potato onion which never 
seeds and is propagated by the division of its bulbs. The onion 
has been cultivated from remote antiquity, and there are very 
many varieties that have been developed for different purposes. 
These are almost without exception grown for their bulbs, but 
in a few cases no bulbs are formed. The bulbs in color are 
white, red and yellow, with Intermediate shades. In the suc- 
cessful raising of the onion, good judgment and experience play 
an important part. Perhaps no vegetable crop is more certain 
to pay the skillful grower for his time and labor and none more 
liable to cause trouble to the careless beginner, and yet its cul- 
tivation is quite simple. The prices for onions vary greatly. 
They seldom are so cheap as to make the crop unprofitable; but 
occasionally they get down to fifteen cents per bushel, at which 
price they cannot be grown at a profit. There are few cinimals 
that eat onions, and if not sold they cannot be fed to stock on a 
large scale, as is the case with most vegetables. As a money 
crop for careful growers in many sections they are among the 
most reliable, and if a reasonable amount of them is raised each 
year without regard to the price the preceding year, it is a crop 
that will generally average a good profit. 

Land. — Onions may be raised on any good retentive soil. 
Sandy land is too apt to dry out in summer for best results. On 
drained muck land, large crops may be easily raised; although 
onions grown on such soil are often a little looser in texture than 
those raised on drier land. The land should be rich, fine and 
free from weeds and any strawy manure or other material that 
would interfere with close cultivation. Too much stress cannot 
be put on having the land free from weed seeds, since it is a 
crop that requires much hand weeding and the plants are quite 
delicate when young. The soil should be rather firm for onions 
and plowed in the fall rather than in the spring. Fall plowing 
leaves the soil firm and in excellent condition for the crop. 
Sometimes when the land is rich it is desirable not to plow at 
all, especially it is was in onions the preceding year, but instead 



122 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



to make a seed bed by the use of a disk or other good harrow 
and plant at once; in fact, better results will generally be ob- 
tained from spring harrowing than from spring plowing of land 
to be used for onions. Of course, if the land is to be harrowed 
only to prepare it for the crop, it is very important, if manure is 
10 be used, that this be very fine, so that the harrow will 
cover it. 

Old land is generally preferred for onions, and this crop is 
often successfully raised on the same land for many years. 
From the fact that onion land is always most carefully attended 
to and gets much manure and tillage, it is generally in better 
condition for onions than land used for almost any other crop. 
However, it is a good plan to occasionally change the land for 
onions, since on new land there is far less danger from disease 
and insect enemies than on old land. Land that has grown any 
crop requiring high culture and heavy manuring and is free 
from weed seeds will generally grow good onions. Sometimes 
onions are raised on newly cleared woodland or prairie sod with 
greatest success, simply by sowing the seed broadcast and har- 
rowing it in; but this is seldom attempted. 

Sowing the Seed. — Before sowing the seed the land should 
be made very smooth. It is very important to get the seed in 
the ground as early in the spring as possible. As soon as the 
land can be worked in the spring, the seed should be sown and 
the earlier it is sown the better. The seed of some kinds can 
be sown in the autumn to advantage, but on land that is in- 
clined to "bake," it is a bad practice and is seldom attempted. 
There is, however, a fair chance of a crop even if the seed is 
sown as late as the first of June, but a first-class crop from seed 
sown as late as this is almost out of the question. By the mid- 
dle of May, all onion land should have been sown. The distance 
between the rows will depend somewhat on the variety grown, 
but for ordinary purposes the seed should be sown in rows fif- 
teen inches apart and covered one inch deep. About eighteen 
good seed should be sown to each foot of row, which will make 
it necessary to use four or five pounds of seed per acre. If 
there is danger of much loss from the depredations of the onion 
maggot, more than this amount of seed should be used; where 
maggots are very troublesome some growers use as much as six 



I 



ONIONS. 123 

pounds per acre. The seed sower should be carefully tested on 

a floor or other smooth surface before using it in the field to see 
how it works. It is very important to know the germinating 
qualities of the seed sown, since if it is of low germination more 
must be used than if it is of best quality. Ninety per cent of 
good onion seed ought to germinate if the conditions are favor- 
able. It is important to closely study these matters, as it is de- 
sirable to have the land well stocked with plants and yet not 
over stocked. It is better to fail of getting quite so much seed on 
the land as is desired than it is to get very much more than is 
wanted, for in the first case the onions, although somewhat 
scattering, will be of good size, while if the plants are too thick 
they must be thinned out, or the onions will be small and in- 
ferior. The work of thinning onions on a large scale is a very 
expensive operation, and every precaution should be taken to 
avoid having to do it. If the seed is sown only a little thicker 
than the plants ought to stand, it is sometimes a good plan in- 
stead of thinning them out, to put on an extra dressing of some 
quick-acting, easily-applied manure, such as hen manure, which 
will probably make it possible for the land to mature the whole 
crop in good shape. Onions have the quality of crowding out 
to the sides of the rows and on top of one another, so that they 
may grow pretty thick and still be of good size, providing other 
conditions are favorable to their development. It is important 
to have the seed sown in straight rows. If the first row is laid 
off with a line or otherwise made straight, the subsequent rows 
are easily made parallel to it by means of the marker on the 
seed sower. If there are found to be some vacancies in the 
rows after the onions appear, these may be filled by sowing 
onion seed in them by hand; late in the season such vacancies 
may be sown with carrot seed. 

Cultivation. — As soon as the plants commence to break the 
surface soil, cultivation should be commenced with a hand cul- 
tivator that will work both sides of the row at one time and 
throw a little earth from the plant; hand weeding should fol- 
low at once. At the second hoeing, the plants being now pretty, 
strong, the soil should be cultivated somewhat deeper. This 
will enable a careful man to work the soil very close to the 
plants. Onions naturally grow in the surface of the land and 



124 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



not below it and should never be hilled up. The onion crop 
should De hoed and weeded as often as the weeds appear or 
whenever the ground packs hard around the growing plants. 
The weeds should be destroyed when small. This means that 
until early summer the onions should be hoed about once every 
two weeks. When the plants get so large that they will no 
longer pass under the straddle cultivator without being bruised 
the work of cultivation must be continued between the rows 
until the bulbs commence to form, after which it is not a good 
plan to work much among them, since pushing the tops about 
tends to make them die down quicker than otherwise. When 
the onions are about the size of a half dollar and before the tops 
fall over, it is a good plan, if the land is not very rich, to apply 
some qu'ick-acting fertilizer such as hen manure or a commer- 
cial fertilizer broadcast over the crop. This should be don^ 
just before or during a rain if possible. For this purpose dry, 
fine hen manure is good, but any rich, nitrogenous fertilizer will 
answer. 

If the plants are going to make good onions they will be- 
come weak in the neck just above the bulb when nearly grown 
and fall flat on the ground, where they should be allowed to lie 
undisturbed until the tops and roots are entirely dried, then the 
bulbs can be easily pulled out of the ground with a rake or 
onion puller. In the vicinity of St. Paul, this time will be in 
August or the early part of September. About four rows of 
bulbs should be thrown together, and they should be turned with 
a rake every few days until perfectly dry and then be put under 
cover to protect them from rain. If they are allowed to get wet 
several times after being pulled, the outer skins are liable to 
come off and thus make the bulbs unsightly. If not pulled for 
some little time after they are ripe, especially if the season is 
moist, new roots are very sure to start and the roots become 
grown so firmly into the soil that the work of pulling and dry- 
ing them is increased. The work of cutting or twisting off the 
tops, called topping, may be left until the onions are marketed, 
but they will be found to keep much better if ''topped,'" since if 
the tops arc left on they prevent a free circulation of the air 
through the bulbs. 

"Scallions" or ''Thick Necks." — Sometimes, too, the tops of 



ONIONS. 



125 



the plant do not die down as they should, but remain green and 
continue to grow after the bulbs are well formed, and become 
what are called "scallions" or "thick necks." This is generiilly 
due to the planting of poorly selected seed, but sometimes it is 
not to be accounted for. In such cases it is generally recom- 
mended to break the tops down, which certainly does no harm, 
but it is of doubtful value. A better way is to pull such plants 
as soon as they begin to grow vigorously after once hfvVing 
formed good bulbs, dry them as much as possible and remove 
the tops. However, such onions do not generally keep well ana 
had better be used during autumn and early winter. 

Keeping Onions. — Onions should be kept in a dry, cool 
place. In a damp cellar they will sprout and grow no matter If 
the temperature there is near the freezing point. They will 
stand quite a little frost without much injury, but if frozen and 
thawed several times they become soft and do not keep well, 
but start to grow very quickly. The best way of keeping onions 
is in a cold, dry room in slatted bins or on shelves so arrangea 
that the air can circulate through them. A very practical plan 
is to put them in barrels without heads, having holes in the bot- 
tom and sides and pile these on top of one another two tiers 
high, first putting down scantling or other material to allow the 
air to circulate under and around them. If our common onions 
are frozen solid in the autumn and kept so all winter, they will 
generally come out right in the spring. A good way to do this 
is to lay them eighteen inches thick on the floor of a loft and 
cover with a foot or so of hay. Thus arranged they will not 
freeze until severe weather sets in and will remain frozen until 
spring. They may also be put in water-proof bins in the field 
where grown and treated in the same way. They should never 
be handled when frozen, as they are apt to bruise. Freezing 
and thawing several timas seriously, injures them, but if kept 
frozen and gradually thawed out they come out in very nice 
condition. After thawing out, they will not keep well, but 
gaickly start to grow, and should be disposed of at once. They 
Prizetaker and similar kinds are an exception to this rule and 
are liable to be ruined if frozen. 

Onion Sets is a term applied to small onions which are 
planted out in the spring instead of seeds. If onions under 



126 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



three-fourths of an inch in diameter are planted out in the 
spring, they do not go to seed as do larger onions, but form a 
new bulb, and form it much earlier than they are formed when 
grown from seed. Taking advantage of this fact, it has become 
a common practice to raise these small onions (sets) and plant 
them out for early summer use. It does not matter how small 
the set is, and one the size of a pea is as good as one much 
larger. The size generally preferred is about one-half an inch 
in diameter. 

Planting Onion Sets. — The method of planting sets is to 
have the land in the same condition as recommended for onion 
seed and plant the sets as soon as the soil can be worked in the 
spring. In doing this mark off the land in drills twelve inches 
apart and push each set down firmly three inches deep into the 
mellow soil, leaving them three inches apart. This is done by 
hand, and each set is handled separately, so as to have them 
right side up. The drill is then closed in with the feet or rake, 
so that each set is entirely covered up. If the ground is dry, 
it is sometimes rolled to make it still more compact around the 
bulbs, but it is generally quite moist when the sets are planted 
in early spring. As soon as the rows can be seen, the wheel hoe 
is used, and the plants kept free from weeds and the soil well 
stirred. By this method we will have onions of good table size 
by the first of July, and some may be marketed in bunches in a 
green state in June. Onion sets seldom, if ever, fail to produce 
good crops and are well adapted for use in the home garden and 
by those who will not take the pains necessary to grow onions 
from seed. No matter how poor the soil or the cultivation 
where the sets are planted, they always increase in size and 
ripen early. There is no danger of their being injured by freez- 
ing after being planted. From six to ten bushels of sets are re- 
quired per acre, depending on their size. 

The raising of onion sets is carried on to a large extent in 
some localities, and it is a crop that requires much skill in 
handling. Sandy soil of rather inferior quality but free from 
weeds and in fine tilth is best for this purpose. To keep the 
sets from growing too large, it is customary to plant from 
thirty to fifty pounds of seed per acre, and not plant it until the 
latter part of May. This treatment crowds the seedlings so 



ONIONS. 



127 



that they cannot grow large. In sowing the seed, it is best to 
go over the rows with the seed sower three or four times, sow- 
ing only a part of the seed each time. This spreads the seed 
out in wide drills and permits of more even w^ork than would 
be possible were it attempted to sow all the seed by going over 
the rows once. If onion sets grow too large it is often almost 
impossiole to use them for any purpose, since they are too 
small to sell well except for pickling, and the demand for this 
purpose is very limited. On this account, if it is feared the sets 




Fig-ure 52.— At the left: onion plants as dug-. Ontherig-ht: onion plants trim 
med and ready for transplanting. 

will grow too Krge, they are pulled when of the proper size, even 
if still quite green. The further cultivation of plants for sets is 
the same as for a field crop of oniohs. The sets should be taken 
up in August, or as soon as ripe, with a rake or onion set puller. 
When dry they should be stored, tops and all, about four inches 
deep, in a loft, where they should be covered with a foot of hay 
or straw on the approach of hard frost and left until wanted for 
planting in the spring. In other words, they should be kept 



128 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



frozen aii winter. Treated in this way they will require to be 
cleaned in the spring, and this is done by rubbing them in the 
hands to loosen the dirt and tops and then running them through 
a fanning mill. After this they are run over a screen with a 
three-fourths inch mesh, and only those that go through it are 
saved for sets. This work of cleaning may be done in autumn 
before storing and the sets mixed with chaff to aid in keeping 
them over winter. 

Transplanting Onions. — Within a few years some market 
gardeners have adopted a plan of raising onions by sowing the 
seed in March in a hotbed and then transplanting the seedlings 



to the open ground as soon as it works well. This system has 
the merit of doing away with the first few weedmgs m the open 
ground, reduces the expense of seed to a minimum and makes 
it possible to raise some of the more delicate foreign varieties 
of onions, which command the highest price in the market. P 
is, however, very doubtful if the common field onions can be 
raised at a profit under this method, but it is desirable if the 




Fig-ure 53. — Transplanting- Onions in the Fiela. 



ONIONS. 



129 



Spanish kinds are to be raised in this section. The selection 
and preparation of the land for this purpose is the same as for a 
field crop. The seed is sown in a hotbed in rows three inches 
apart, or on a small scale a few plants may be raised in a box 
in the window of the living room. The soil for this purpose 
should be a somewhat sandy loam of only moderate quality, and 
that which has no manure in it is most certain to grow healthy 
plants. If very thick in the row, the plants must be thinned 
out so as not to crowd one another too much, but still they may 
be grown very thickly; as many as twelve to fifteen plants to 
the inch of row is about right, and to secure this amount about 
twice as many seeds will have to be sown to the inch. Too 
much importance cannot be attached to the raising of strong 
plants, since those that are weak and spindling are very cer- 
tain to fail when moved. 

For a week or two previous to setting out the plants, they 
should have plenty of fresh air, and it is a good plan to remove 
the sashes entirely from over them except when there is dan- 
ger of frost, so that the plants may become hardened off, as 
otherwise they are liable to serious injury by freezing when 
moved to the open ground, although they stand some freezing 
when hardened off. They do not transplant so well when soft 
and succulent as when properly hardened. The land and prep- 
aration required is the same as for a field crop of onions. The 
plants should be set two or three inches apart in rows twelve 
inches apart. Before setting them out the tops should be most- 
ly cut off, and this is especially important if they are weak and 
spindling, as they are then very sure to turn yellow and die. If 
the roots are excessively long, they may be shortened to facil- 
tate transplanting. The plants are generally set in small fur- 
rows opened with a hand cultivator or with a marker. The 
lower part of the bulb should be about an inch deep in the 
ground. Ine plants are easily moved, and if the soil is well 
firmed they are very sure to live. About 150,000 plants are re- 
quired for an acre, and it is a big job to transplant them. For 
this purpose children can generally be employed at low wages 
and they will do the work very well if carefully looked after. 
The expense of transplanting; Is variously estimated at from $25 



130 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

to $50 per acre. Subsequent cultivation is the same as for a 
field crop of onions. 

Marketing. — In a general way the directions for marketing 
onions apply to any other crop. They should be sold as soon 
as a fair price can be obtained for them and not stored unless 
^.here is a good chance of a rise. In some localities there is a 
large demand for onions for bunching purposes before the bulbs 
are formed. In these places it will sometimes pay to pull and 
sell the crop before the tops have died down, but generally it 
should be allowed to ripen. The foreign kinds, such as can only 
be raised here by the transplanting method, are generally high- 
est in price in early autumn and should then be sold. The tops 
should always be removed before the bulbs are marketed, and 
all small bulbs should be picked out and sold separately for 
pickling purposes. Most markets prefer onions of medium size, 
globular rather than flat in shape, and yellow or white in color 
rather than red. Very large onions of the common type are not 
so salable as those of medium size; but of the foreign kinds, the 
larger the better, and good specimens sometimes weigh as much 
as two pounds. 




Figure 54.— Varieties of Onions. 1— Southport Yellow Globe. 2— Silver Skin. 
3— Red Globe. 4— Prizetaker. 5 -Yellow Danvers. 

Onions for the Honne Garden should be raised partly from 
seed and partly from sets or transplanting. The small onions 
picked out from one season's crop may be used as sets the next 



ONIONS. 



131 



year, when they will give a much earlier crop than those 
grown from seed. 

Varieties. — For general field crops in this section no onion 
is more certain than Red Wethersfield. The Yellow Danvers is 
the best yellow kind for this purpose. The earliest maturing 
large kind is Extra Early Red. For raising sets the Yellow 
Dutch, called also Yellow Strasburg, is the best kind, but any 
variety may be used for this purpose. For growing in hotbeds, 
greenhouses or window boxes to be transplanted to the open 
ground, the Prizetaker and Southport Yellow Globe are most in 
demand. 

Potato Onions and Shallots are always grown from the bulbs, 
which increase in size and also produce a cluster of bulbs 
(cloves) around the one that is planted. They are especially 
adapted to early marketing in the same way as onion sets. 

Egyptian, or Perennial Tree, Onion. — This kind is perfectly 
hardy and does not form bulbs, but the bleached stem is used in 
a green state. It produces no seed, but instead has a small clus- 
ter of bulblets where the seed cluster should be. These bulb- 
lets are planted in September in the same way as recommended 
for onion sets and are ready for use as bunch onions very early 
the following season. 

Top Onions is a name applied to a class of onions that pro- 
duce no seed, but where the seed should be have a cluster of 
small bulbs. These small bulbs when planted grow into large 
common onions and when these common onions are planted they 
produce a crop of sets. 

Onion Seed is raised by planting out the bulbs in the spring 
in rows four feet apart, and for this purpose, bulbs of the great- 
est excellence are used. It is best to set the bulbs about 
six inches deep and six inches apart in each furrow, and to do 
this planting out very early in the spring. The seed stalks will 
attain a height of about three feet. The seed clusters ripen 
somewhat unevenly, but should be gathered before they are quite 
dry, or the seed will shell out and be lost. When gathered, they 
should be dried in airy chambers and afterwards threshed out 
and cleaned with a fanning mill or they may be cleaned by being 
thrown into water. The latter method secures the best seed. 



132 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

All the seed that is full and plump will sink in water, and as 

the chaff and light- 
er seeds float they 
are readily separated 
from the good seed 
Some of the seed 
that floats will 
grow, but it is not 
very desirable for 
planting. The same 
land that grows a 
crop of onion seed is 
sometimes used for 
growing a crop of cu- 
cumbers or melons at 
the same time, since 
the onions do not 
shade the land or 
take much nourish- 
ment from it except 
early in the spring. 

Pig"ure 55 — Onion plants in flower. 

COMMON GARLIC. (Allium sativum.) 

Native of southern Europe. — Perennial. — All parts of the 
plant have the well-known strong burning taste. The bulbs 
or beads are composed of about ten cloves enveloped Dy a very 
thin, white or rose-colored membranous skin. The plant 
hardly ever flowers and is grown by . means of the cloves, 
for which purpose those on the outside of the cluster should 
be used. These should be planted in good rich soil in about 
the same way as onion sets. They should be gathered after the 
bulb clusters are well formed. This vegetable is scarcely used 
at the north, while in southern European countries it is quite 
common. It is said that it has a much stronger burning taste 




ONIONS. 



133 



when grown at the north than when grown in the south. What 
is known as common garlic is the kind most generally used. 




Figure 56.— 1— French Shallots. 2— Top Onions (red) 
4— Garlic. 5— Potato Onions. 



3— Jersey Shallops 




Fig-ure 57— Leek. 



LEEKS. (Allium porrum.) 

Said to be a native of Switzer 
land. — Biennial. — The leek is closely 
allied to the onion, which it resem- 
bles in flavor, color of seed and flowei, 
However, it does not form a bulb but 
a straight bunch of leaves, that are 
used almost entirely in a fresh or un- 
cooked condition. The leaves are flat 
instea(5 cr round and hollow, as is the 
case with onions. As yet this vege- 
table is little grown in this country, 
except around the large cities. 

Cultivation. — Its requirements are 
about the same, and it may be culti- 



vated in much the same way as the onion, but it ^s more 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



common to sow the seed early in spring and transplant in 
summer, settling plants very deep, as the market value de- 
pends on the blanched condition of the stem; and for the same 
reason in hoeing the soil is drawn up over the stem. They 
transplant very easily when the soil is moist, but should have 
the tops trimmed off as recommended in transplanting onions. 
If they are not transplanted, especial care should be taken to 
draw the soil towards the plants in hoeing. They may be stored 
in the same manner as celery, and are marketed in bunches 
the same as green onions. 

Varieties. — There are several varieties which vary in form 
and color. 

Large Flag leek is a popular sort and, perhaps, more largely 
grown than any other. 

Scotch Flag or Musselburgh leek is longer than the above, 
but not quite so thick. 

CHIVES. (Allium schoenoprasum.) 

Native of Europe. — Perennial. — A hardy plant growing in 
thick tufts. Bulbs oval, scarcely as large as a hazelnut, forming 
compact masses; leaves very numerous, grass-like in appear- 
ance and hollow. Flower stems in terminal clusters of violet- 
red flowers and usually barren. The tops have an onion-like 
flavor and are used in seasoning. 

Culture. — Chives are propagated by dividing the tufts. They 
are not much used and are generally grown as edgings for beds 
in the garden. Of the easiest culture. 

THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. (Order Polygonaceae.) 

The buckwheat family includes herbs which alternate entire 
leaves and stipules in the form of sheaths above the swollen 
joints of the stem. Flowers mostly perfect vvith a one-celled 
ovary bearing two or three styles or stigmas. Fruit usually an 
achene either flattened or three or four-angled or winged. Some- 
tim.es agreeably' acid as in sorrel and sometimes cathartic as 
the roots of rhubarb. Only rhubarb is here discussed, but other 
familiar plants that belong to this order are Sorrel, Bitter 
Curled and other docks, Knotwood, Smartweed, Bindwv^ed or 
Wild Buckwheat and Field Buckwheat. 



RHUBARB. 135 

RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. (Rheum rhaponticum.) 

The cultivated varieties of rhubarb are generally supposed to 
have come from Mongolia, though it is quite possible that some 
varieties may have sprung from a North American species. The 
plant is an herbaceous perennial whose leaf stalks are used for 
sauce, pies, etc. It sends up a flower stalk often four feet high, 
and produces a large amount of seed each year. It is perfectly 
hardy in gardens, even in very severe situations, and when once 
planted continues to yield abundant crops for many years. The 
seeds are large and triangular. 

Culture. — Rhubarb is readly increased from the seed, which 
germinates quickly. Seedlings vary considerably but not enough 

to prevent this method of 
propagation from being 
the one most commonly 
practiced. They attain 
good transplanting size in 
one year. It is customary 
to sow the seed in rows 
three feet apart early in 
the spring, and set out the 
plants when one year old 
where they are to grow; 
the plants may also be 
thinned out and a few al- 
lowed to remain where 
the seeds are sown. When 
Figure 58.— Rhubarb plant in flower, it is desired to propagate 

the specially valuable 
qualities of individual plants, it is done by dividing the roots, 
using care to take at least one good bud with each piece of root. 
This is the only sure way of getting the best plants. 

It is preferable to set the plants out in the fall where they 
are to grow, but spring planting is often followed. They should 
be set in the richest of land four feet apart each way. The 
stalks should not be pulled up until the spring of the second 
year and then only to a small extent; the third year they should 
give a good crop. The only culture needed is to keep the ground 




136 VEGETABLE GARDENING, 

free from weeds and loose, and to use plenty of manure, Id 
gathering rhubarb the stalks should be removed from the crown 
by a jerk downward and sideways, and care should be taken not 
to be so rough about it as to pull the buds from the crown at 
the same time. There is little danger of pulling more leaves 
than the plant can stand without injury, but in the case of a 
young plantation it would not be well to remove more than one- 
half of the leaves at any one time. The stalks are most in de- 




Figure 5^ — Pieces of rhubarb roots cut off for planting- out. 

mand early in the spring, but there is more or less call for 
them all summer. The seed stalks should be cut off as soon 
as they appear, so as to throw their strength into leaves and 
to prevent the formation of seed, if the largest amount of stalks 
is wanted. 

Forcing Rhubarb. — For winter and spring use rhubarb is 
often forced in greenhouses and cold frames. The roots of any 
age are taken up in autumn, crowded together under the benches 
in greenhouses or placed in boxes or barrels with a little soil be- 
tween them, and put in any convenient place in the greenhouse 
01 a warm light room or cellar where they start into growth in 
February. They are also planted out in warm sheds. Still an- 
other way of forcing rhubarb is by putting a cold frame over the 
plants in the early spring where they are growing in the open 



BEETS. 



137 



ground. This method may be improved by heavily mulching the 
plants so as to keep out the frost in winter. The roots are some- 
times lifted in autumn, planted close together in a deep cold 
frame and covered with leaves to keep out frost. In March the 
leaves are removed and the sashes put on. This method has the 
advantage of using the sashes to the best advantage, but roots 
that are dug and then forced are worthless for further planting. 
In order to increase the length of the stalks it is a common 
practice where but a small amount is grown to put headless bar- 
rels over each plant in the spring when the leaves are starting 
into growth, and in striving to reach the light the leaf stalks 
naturally grow long and tender. An old sash laid over the bar- 
rel is an improvement on this method. , 

Varieties. — There are several varieties, but the following 
kinds are the most highly esteemed: 

iVIyatt's Linneus. — An early sort having deep green stalks 
and attaining to a large size. 

IVIyatt's Victoria. — A much later kind than the preceding. 
Stalks red, very thick and large. 

THE GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. (Order Chenopodiaceae.) 
The Goosefoot Family includes chiefly homely herbs, with in- 
conspicuous greenish flowers. The ovary is one-celled and one- 
seeded. Leaves chiefly alternate. Besides the beet, mangel wurt- 
zel, Swiss chard and spinach, whose cultural directions are here 
given, it Includes such weeds as Russian thistle, goosefoot and 
lamb's quarter or pigweed. 

BEET. (Beta Vulgaris.) 

Native of Europe. — Biennial. — This plant in the first year of 
its growth forms a fleshy root, and goes to seed the second year. 
The seed stalk is about four feet high. What is usually sold 
and planted as beet seed is in reality a fruit and is made up 
of several seeds imbedded in corn-like calyxes; the seed itself 
is very small and kidney-shaped, with a thin brown skin. The 
roots vary greatly in form and size and in color from a reddish 
white to a deep dark red. Some varieties have special quali- 
ties for table use, while others are valuable for feeding stock 
or for sugar only. 

The garden beet is easily grown and is a very reliable crop. 



138 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

It prefers a very rich, sandy, well-worked soil, but will grow in 
any land that is fit for corn. For early use some early-ma- 
turing kind should be selected and the seeds should be sown in 
rows sixteen inches apart in the open ground as soon as the 

soil can be worked in the 
spring. Ten seeds should be 
sown to each foot of row and 
covered one inch deep. The 
young plants will stand quite 
a severe frost without injury. 
As soon as the seedlings ap- 
pear they should be cultivat- 
ed with a wheel hoe, and the 
cultivation repeated at fre- 
quent intervals. When they 
are eight or ten inches high, 
thinning should be commenc- 
ed and continued until the 
plants are six inches apart in 
the rows. These thinnings 
make excellent greens. If 
sown as recommended, they 
will be large enough for 
table use in June and will 
Figure GO.— Bunch of Eclipse beets. be good for USe the rest ol 
the summer. For winter use, the seed should not be sown 
until the last of May or first of June. For late plant- 
ing some growers prefer to put the rows two feet 
or more apart so that when the plants are nicely 
started they can be cultivated by horse power. Stock and 
sugar beets should be sown in rows about thirty inches apart, 
to allow of easy cultivation. These should be sown from the 
middle to the last of May and covered somewhat deeper than 
is recommended for early table beets, perhaps one and one- 
half inches deep. The importance of very early and constant 
cultivation cannot be too strongly insisted on. Beet seed may 
be sown by a machine seed sower, but most of the sowers in 
use will need a little more careful watching when sowing this 




BEETS. 



139 



tli«iii with most other seeds, as the rough seeds (fruit) are liable 

to clog the feed hole. There are a few beet seed sowing ma- 
chines p.dapted for horse power that it will probably pay one 
to use where a large amount of land is to be cultivated in 
beets. About six pounds of seed is required per acre, and it 
is always a good plan to sow^ an abundance of seed, as it does 
not start very uniformly. 

Forcing Beets. — Beets are easily forced by sowing the early 
maturing kinds in February or March in hotbeds, where they 
may be left to mature or may be transplanted when of proper 
size. It is, however, best to allow them to grow^ to table size 
without transplanting, as this always puts the plants back, and 
they recover from it slowly. 

Harvesting and Keeping Beets. — On the approach of severe 
weather — in this section about the middle of October — beets 
should be pulled and the tops cut or twisted off, but the top of 
the root should not be cut off. Light frosts do not hurt them 
much especially when they are protected with a heavy growth 
of foliage, but when the surface of the ground freezes hard there 
is danger of permanent injury to the roots. Beets are easily 
kept in a cold cellar. It is generally best to put them outside 
when dug and allow them to remain there until severe weather 
sets in. If the air of the cellar is very dry the beets should 
be covered with earth after being put in bins, or they will wilt 
and become corky. Beet seed is grown by planting out the 
roots about the middle of May, two feet apart in rows three 
feet apart. The seed ripens in the summer and is generally 
threshed off as soon as ripe. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties of garden beets, and 
they vary considerably in size, form and color, time of matur- 
ing and other characteristics. Among the most valuable are 
the following: 

Eclipse. — A very early dark-red turnip-shaped beet of good 
quality. Valuable for early or late sowing. A favorite vrith 
market gardeners. 

Egyptian. — Valuable for early sowing. 

Bastian's Early Turnip Beet. — A valuable early sort, tender, 
sweet and good in every way; one of the best for early or late 
planting. 



140 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Dewing's Improved Blood Turnip Beet. — A first-class beet in 

every respect; valuable for winter or summer use. 

Diseases of Beets. — The beet is subject to several diseases, 
and it is most healthy when grown on new land. 

Beet Scab is a disease which ruptures the skin of the 
beet in a manner similar to scab on potatoes. Recent investiga- 
tions show that this disease is the same as potato scab. On 
this account, beets should not follow potatoes on land that has 
grown a scabby crop unless there is an interval of several years 
between them. Beets are sometimes subject to a rust that in- 
jures the foliage, but seldom very seriously. 

Stock Beets (often called Mangel Wurzel). Stock beets are 
gross feeders and prefer rich soil. They require the same care 
as table beets, but the rows should be thirty inches apart, so 

as to allow of cultivating them 
with horse implements. The seed 
may be sown with any common 
garden ^ seed drill after first laying 
off the rows with a marker, or it 
may be sown with a common grain 
drill by stopping the flow of seed 
through a part of the holes. It is 
a very good plan to sow radish or 
rutabaga seed with the beet seed, 
as it starts quickly and the line of 
the row is thus easily seen, so that 
cultivation, may be started early. 
Figure 6i.-Sugar Beet. rpj^-g ^^^^ important in land that 

is somewhat weedy. About six pounds of seed to the acre will 
give about twelve seeds (fruits) to a foot. 

There are many good varieties of stock beets. Among the 
best are Long Red, Yellow, or Golden Tankard, Yellow Globe 
and American Sugar. The latter is not a true sugar beet, but is 
much richer in sugar than the ordinary varieties of stock beets 
and, possibly, of better feeding value. 

Sugar Beets, from which is made a large amount of the 
sugar of commerce, are grown in a similar way to stock beets, 
but on a large scale require a rather differeit and special 




BEETS. 



141 



treatment. There is no trouble about raising them with a 
large percentage of sugar in any of the northern states, but 
the drawbacks to its becoming a more general industry are the 
very expensive machinery required to extract the sugar eco- 
nomically on a large scale, the small m.argin of profit and the 
low price the manufacturers have been willing to pay for the 
beets. Sugar beets grow entirely below ground, which makes 
them difficult to dig, and they do not grow to large size, seldom 
weighing more than four pounds. The part of a beet above 
ground does not contain much sugar. It is recommended to sow 
about 18 lbs. of seed of sugar beets per acre. 

LEAF BEET OR SWISS CHARD. 

Native of Southern Europe. — Biennial. — This appears to 

be exactly the same plant as the 
r- ~^ \ beet root, except that in its 



mon table beets. Among the best varieties is one known as the 
Silvery Swiss chard. 

SPINACH. (Spinacia oleracea.) 

Properly a native of Western Asia. — An annual plant cul- 
tivated for its leaves which form popular spring and early sum- 



11 




case cultivation has developed 
the leaves instead of the root. 
The botanical characteristics, es- 
pecially those of the fruit seed 
and flowers are precisely alike 
in both plants. The root is 
branched and not very fleshy, 
while the leaves are large and 
numerous, with the stalk and 
midrib fleshy and very large. 
The plants vary in color from 
deep red to nearly white. The 
fleshy leaf stalks are cooked and 
served like asparagus. 



Figure 62 - Swiss Chard. 



Culture. — The plants are grown 
in the same manner as the com- 



142 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



mer greens. It has a seed stalk about two feet high. The 
varieties are divided according to their seeds into round and 



varieties for table use, but this difference is not always very 
clear. 

Culture. — The seed of spinach may be sown in hotbeds or 
cold frames very early in the spring or outdoors as soon as 
the ground can be worked. It is of the easiest culture. A 
supply may be had during the whole growing season by making 
a succession of sowings at intervals of about two weeks. 
Under good conditions it will be ready for table use in about six 
weeks from the time of sowing the seed. In planting it outdoors 
the rows should be about twelve inches apart. The seed should 
be covered about one inch deep and about forty seeds or more 
sown to the foot or row. It is well to use plenty of seed and 
since it often starts poorly in dry weather extra precautions are 
taken when sowing it at that time. The plants may be thinned 
out when too thick, and, no matter how small they are they form 
a good vegetable. Spinach is often sown in the spring between 
early peas, cabbage, potatoes or other slow growing crops. For 
early spring use the seeds of the hardiest kinds should be 
sown in this section in the latter part of August. The plants 
should grow well and attain a good size during the cool weather 
of autumn, and on the approach of winter they should be covered 
with about two inches of straw, hay or similar material. When 
thus treated the crop generally comes through the winter in this 




Figure 63.^ — Spinach, 



prickly - seeded sorts. 
The latter have sharp, 
hard prickles on the 
seeds'. This division is 
so pronounced that 
some botanists have 
treated these classes 
as distinct species. The 
prickly-seeded sorts are 
considered the hardiest, 
while among the round- 
seeded kinds are per- 
haps the most desirable 



SPINACH. 



143 



section without serious Injury and after malting a little growth in 
the spring is marketable. It is harvested by cutting the plants 
off at the top of the ground. For this purpose a short push hoe 
is run under the plants. They are then freed from dead leaves, 
and after being washed are ready for marketing. Spinach 
requires a very rich soil and plenty of well-rotted manure. To 
secure the best results from early spring sowings, it will pay 
those raising it for market, to use nitrate of soda on the land in 
small quantities, say, two applications at the rate of seventy-five 
pounds per acre at intervals of two weeks after the crop has 
started. This material has a wonderful effect on early leaf crops. 
Where nitrate of soda is not used hen manure is very desirable 
The effect of nitrate of soda on this crop is very marked and 
often results in more than doubling its size. Spinach generally 
is very free from insects and fungous diseases. 

Varieties. — There are a number of varieties of spinach dif- 
fering in earliness, hardiness and in the time they remain in 
edible condition, as well as in many minor matters. Among 
the best are the following: 

Long Standing. — An excellent sort for spring and summer 
sowing, since it stands longer than any other sort before going 
to seed. 

Prickly, or Winter. — A prickly seed variety that is very 
popular. It will withstand very severe weather without serious 
injury if lightly protected by hay or straw and is probably the 
best sort for autumn planting in this section. 

BlO'Omsdale. — A nice hardy sort with long, curled leaves of 
excellent quality. Very hardy. 

THE CABBAGE FAIVIILY. (Order Cruciferae.) 
Tlie cabbage family is made up of herbaceous plants having 
watery juice, a pungent (peppery) taste, and floral envelopes 
arranged on the plan of four, with their petals generally spread 
out in the form of a cross. Stamens six, two of which are short- 
er than the other four. Seed all embryo. This is a large family 
and includes besides the cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel's sprouts, 
kale, kohl-rabi, horseradish, cress, water cress, whose cultural 
directions are given under this head, among common weeds, the 
mustard, French weed, false flax, pepper cress, shepherd's purse 



144 



VEGETABLE GARDENING^ 



and many garden flowers such as nasturtium, gillyflower, candy- 
tuft and alyssum. 

CABBAGE. (Brassica oleracea.) 
Native of Europe and Western Asia, — Biennial. — It grows 
naturally to the neight of three or four feet and scarcely resem- 
bles any of our cultivated kinds. The part eaten is termed the 
head and is simply a cluster of leaves enwrapping the top of the 
stem, or in other words, a large bud. It attains the height of 
three or four feet when it goes to seed. The flowers are gener- 
ally yellow in color and conspicuous, though not large. There 
are three great groups of cabbages distinguished respectively by 
their (1) red leaves, (2) smooth leaves and (b) wrinkled leaves. 
Red cabbages are chiefly esteemed for pickling. The varieties 
with smooth, light green leaves (common cabbage) are com- 




Figure 64 — Cross section of cabbage head, showing arrangement of stem and 
leaves and that it is simply a big terminal bud. 

monly cultivated, while the Savoy cabbage, which has wrinkled 
leaves, and is of the best quality, is little grown because it does 
not produce so abundantly as the common kinds. The original 
species from which the cabbage has sprung is also the parent of 
the cauliflower, kale and Brussel's sprouts. The seed of the cab- 
bage is dark brown in color, smooth and round. 



CABBAGE. 



145 



3oii. — The best soil for cabbage is a rich alluvial or prairie 
loam, moist, yet well drained and in fine condition. While some 
varieties will mature on poor soil yet they all require the highest 
cultivation for the best development. This is especially true 
of early cabbage, which needs mucn richer soil than the late 
crop. It is a good plan to occasionally change the land used for 
cabbage; in some eastern sections it is necessary to do this each 
year on account of the prevalence of the disease called club- 
root, which is not yet found in this section. 

Manure. — The cabbage is a gross feeder and needs lots of 
rich manure. Most of our best growers apply manure broadcast, 
but when there is a necessity of economizing with the manure, 
it may be applied to better advantage in the hill, providing the 
land is in good condition. In growing early cabbage it is an ex- 
cellent plan to apply a handful or so of dry hen manure arouni 
the hills when the plants are half grown. This should not be put 
close to the plants, but scattered over a radius of a foot or more 
from the plants and then cultivated into the soil. 

Early Cabbage. — The methods of cultivating adapted to the 
growing of early cabbage are quite different from those followed 
in raising late cabbage, and the subject of cultivation naturally 
groups itself under these heads. The soil preferred for early 
cabbage is a light, rich, sandy loam, well drained and sloping to 
the south, providing it is not too liable to injury from drouth. 
In milder sections of the country it is customary to sow the 
seed for early cabbage in September, and winter the plants over 
in cold frames. This method is impracticable in the extreme 
Northern states, and the best plan to follow in such sections is 
that of sowing the seed in greenhouses or hotbeds from the mid- 
dle to the last of February. As the plants need room they are 
transplanted so as not to be crowded. If they are kept growing 
freely they will be large enough to transplant to the open ground 
by the first of April. 

Setting the Plants. — Cabbage plants will grow at a low tem- 
perature, and it is a great advantage to plant them out early 
in the spring, although the weather may be damp and cold. At 
this season of the year they may not show any great increase 
in leaf surface, but they form roots rapidly, and these are a great 



146 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

help in providing a vigorous growth later in the season. As a 
rule, early cabbage should be set out as soon as the frost in out 
in the spring and the ground nicely settled. It is iniportaiit to 
set the plants deep in the ground at this season, and bince the 
stem is the part most liable to injury from hard iro^t^^ it should 
be set deep enough to bring the base of the loaves below the 
ground. This is very important and frequently makes the differ- 
ence between success and failure in growing the early crop. I! 
severe weather is threatened after the plants are set out, it is h 
good plan to draw a hoe-ful of earth over each plant, for if frozen 
when they are covered with earth they will not be injured, and 
they can remain buried in the ground several days in cold weath- 
er without serious injury. However, the earth should be removed 
as soon as good weather is assured. The distance between 
the plants will depend somewhat on the varieties to bo culti- 
vated; under ordinary conditions the large, early kinds should 
be set out two feet apart in rows three feet apart. This arrange- 
ment permits of horse cultivation both ways when the plants 
are young and one way when they are full grown. 

Cultivation s'lould commence as soon as the rows can bo 
clearly seen, and should be repeated after each rain or at least 
once a week until the crop is grown. For this purpose a fine- 
tooth horse cultivator is the most desirable instrumer.i, and \i 
the work is carefully done there will be very little need of hand 
hoeing. It is a good plan to draw the earth slightly toward the 
plants when they are about half grown. 

Harvesting the Crop. — Treated in this way, under ordinary 
conditions they will be nicely *'headed up" by the first of July 
and ready for marketing. The season for marketing, however, 
will depend largely on the kinds grown. If the land is at once 
plowed when the crop is harvested, it can be used for growing 
some late crop, as late beans, spinach or celery. By care in 
sov/ing and the selection of varieties early cabbage may be cou- 
tinued till late cabbage is in the market. 

Retarding the Heading of cabbages may be accomplished by 
starting the roots on one side of the head or by slightly pulling 
the plant so as to break som.e of the roots. This is very impor- 
tant some seasons, as it is not uncommon to find the market over- 
stocked with this vegetable just as the crop is full grown, and 



CABBAGE. 



147 



if the plants are allowed to remain growing when once a hard 
head is formed they are very sure to burst and be spoiled. By 
starting the roots a little, the growth is checked and heads may 
be kept from spoiling for a week or more. 

Late Cabbage is a term generally given to cabbage grown 
from seed sown in the open ground. It may be ready for use in 
September or in the late autumn and be kept all winter. 

Soil. — Any land that will produce a good crop of corn is in 
good condition for late cabbage, but the richer the land the bet- 
ter the chances of success. Less manure is required for late 
than for early cabbage. Late cabbage is generally raised by sow- 
ing the seed in the hiils, or by sowing it in a seed bed and set- 
ting the plants in the field when of sufficient size. Each of these 
methods has its advantages and will be referred to separately 
further on. 

Sowing Cabbage Seed. — Late cabbage may be raised by sow- 
ing the seed in a seedbed, in rows twelve inches apart, in 
the spring, and when the plants are large enough transplanting 
them to the field where they are to be grown. This is the com- 
mon way of growing cabbage. Its advantages are that the plants 
may be set out on land that has grown some early crop, as peas, 
or on sod land after cutting the hay. It also ensures having the 
plants all together in a small space, where they can be easily 
cultivated and guarded when they are young and most liable to 
serious injury from cut worms, flea beetles and other insects 
and from dry weather. It has the disadvantage of requiring the 
plants to be moved during the dry weather of early summer, 
when they are very liable to fail from lack of water in the soil. 
Sowing the seed of cabbage in the field where the plants are to 
mature and then thinning out to one plant to a hill, has the 
advantage of not requiring the transplanting of the plants during 
dry weather, and as the plants are not set back by transplant 
ing they mature in a shorter time than transplanted plants. 
This makes it practicable to sow the seed later than when the 
plants are to be removed and is sometimes an advantage. It has 
the disadvantage, however, of having the plants scattered over 
a large area when they are small and are liable to serious in- 
sect enemies, and they are more difficult to cultivaie than when 



148 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



in a seed bed. The thinnings from the land where seed is sown 
in the hill may be set elsewhere. 

Raising Cabbage by Transplanting. — If the plants are to be 
raised in a seedbed and then transplanted to the open ground 
the seed of such varieties as Late Flat Dutch should be sown 
about the 10th of May; but if Fotler's Improved Brunswick or 
other second early kind is to be grown, the seed should not be 
sown until at least ten days later; and such large, early heading 
varieties as Early Summer may be successfully raised for winter 
use when its seed is sown as late as the first of June. In any 
case the plants should be ready to set out by the last of June, 
when they should be carefully transplanted. The land should 
be thoroughly pulverized and marked out three feet apart each 
way, unless it is to be manured in the hills, when it should be 
furrowed out one way and marked the other way. The plants 
should be set at the intersections of the marks, but it is not a 
good plan to seL them on top of the manure, but rather to put 
them a little to one side of it. This is especially important if the 
manure is not well rotted. The cultivation and after treatment 
are the same for late as for early oabbage. 

Cabbage from Seed Sown in the Hill. — If the seed is to be 
sown in the hills, the land should be treated as recommended 
when the plants are to be transplanted. It is generally neces- 
sary for success to have the soil moist wnen the seed is sown. 
After the land is marked out, seven or eight seeds should be 
sown at each intersection covered with about half an inch of soil 
and pressed down with the sole of the foot. The plants gen- 
erally come up inside of a week and should be hand-hoed at 
once, and when large enough cultivated with a horse implement. 
When big enough to stand alone take out all but one plant from 
each hill and treat as directed for those that have been trans- 
planted. 

Harvesting Late Cabbage may be done by selling directly 
from the field or by storing for marketing during the winter. If 
the heads are nearly ready to burst they cannot be kept long 
and should be disposed of at once. There is generally a good 
demand in. the late autumn for this vegetable for general mar- 
keting and also by the pickling factories for making sauer kraut. 
Cabbages will stand ten degrees or more of frost, but severe 



CABBAGE. 



149 



,reezing is very injurious; they are seldom injured by frost un- 
less the stump is frozen solid. If there is danger of severe freez- 
ing before the crop can be marketed or stored, it is a good plan 
to pull the plants and put them into piles, v/ith the stumps in- 
side, and cover the whole Avith straw litter. Piled and covered 
this way, they may be left in the field until severe freezing 
weather and will generally be safe in such a condition in this 
section until the first of December. At harvesting there may be 
some heads that are quite too loose for marketing, and such cab- 
bage will often improve very much if stored as recommended for 
seed cabbage. 

Storing Cabbage. — In order to have cabbage keep well fa: 
into the winter, they must not be headed very solid when gath- 




Figure 65.— Cabbage pitted for winter. 

ered buc should be a trifle soft, but there is auite a difference 
in the keeping qualities of the different varieties. If late varie- 
ties are sown too early, they will not keep well and if early va 
rieties are sown late so as to be in good keeping condition when 
harvested they often keep very well. In order to store cabbage 
successfully, they must be kept cold and moist but never allowed 
to get warm or wet. Providing the cabbage is in good condition 
for storing it will generally keep until spring if the heads are 
set together with the roots up, in a trench and covered with 
from six inches to a foot of soil and mulch enough to prevent 
hard freezing. If they are frozen while buried and thawed out 
in the ground they are seldom seriouslv injured. In this sec- 
tion, however, a better plan is to keep them in a cold, damp cel- 
lar, stored in bins about four feet wide so as to allow a circula- 
tion of air through them. For commercial purposes, it is a good 



150 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Dlan to build store houses, half in and half out of the ground; in 
a small way, they may be kept by burying the heads in sand in 
a cellar, or a few cabbages for home use, may be heeled in by 
the roots in the cellar — but it should be borne in mind that de- 
caying cabbage is dangerous material to have under a dwelling 
house, and it should not be permitted under any circumstances. 
In storing cabbage the loose outside leaves should be removed 
and the stumps always left on, except when they are to be stored 
in ^^ns 

Cabbage Seed is a somewhat difficult crop to raise in this 
section, the trouble being in keeping the plants over winter. 
However, it may be done if care is used. For this purpose heads 
should not be permitted to get very hard; they should be gath- 
ered before the stumps have been frozen and be set close to- 
•rether, heads up, in a trench and covered witL- abo it a foot of 
5foj^ and mulching enough to prevent severe freeil.iig. Cabbage 




Figure 66. — Seed cabbages pitted for winter. 



deed may be raised from the stumps after the heads are cut off, 
and this is a very simple matter as the stumps can be buried like 
turnips or even kept in bins, providing they are covered with 
earth and kept cold, but such seed is not desirable, as the evi- 
dence seems to show that there is a tendency to increase the 
length of the stump at the expense of the head under such treat- 
ment. It is generally agreed among our best seed growers that 
cabbage seed should be saved from the terminal buds of the 
stem which are in the cabbage head. Providing the seed cab- 
bage are successfully wintered over, they should then be planted 
about the 1st of May in deep furrows about three feet apart, in 



CABBAGE^. 



rows four feet apart. Sometimes 




Figure 67. — Part of cabbage seed 
stalk showing seed pods. (After 
Landreth). 

other early kinds, since 
the head is ot good 
size. The Early Win- 
ningstadt is a very de- 
sirable variety, form- 
ing very solid heads. It 
is the most reliable of 
ail varieties for early 
or late use in unfavor- 
able situations. Fotler's 
Improved Brunswick is 
a valuable variety for 



the seed stalk cannot burst 
through the head leaves, 
and it is a good plan 
where the outer leaves 
are very thick and tough 
to cut through the outside 
leaves on the top of the 
head a little so as to allow 
it to push through. The 
seed is gathered branch 
by branch as the pods be- 
gin to turn yellow, and it 
generally takes several 
cuttings to harvest the 
seed pods. These are 
dried in buildings having 
tight floors and the seed 
is then threshed out. 

Varieties. — For very 
early use the Early Jer- 
sey Wakefield is perhaps 
the most popular variety, 
but the head is quite 
small. For second early 
the Early Summer is per- 
haps the best and is gen- 
erally more profitable than 




68. — Early Winningstadt; cabbage 



152 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



second early use or for winter use, and it is the earliest of tlie 
large heading kinds. 

Flat Dutch and Stone Mason are desirable winter sorts and 
ere good keepers. The best red cabbage is perhaps the Mam- 



Fig-. 69 -Premium flat Dutch cabbag-e. beetle, cabbage worms, cut 
worms and flea, for treatment of which see chapter on insects. 

Diseases. — There are very few diseases that seriously injure 
the cabbage. The most common is club-root, also called cluh 
foot. The life history of this disease is not known. It attacks 
the roots of cabbage, cauliflower, turnips and other plants of 
the same family, causing them to form large irregular swell- 
ings. The plant is checked in growth and often dies from the 
effects of the disease. This is not yet a common disease in this 
section, but in some of the Eastern and Middle states it is very 
common. The best way of avoiding it is to not use the same land 
lor cabbage or similar crop without at least three ye^rs interven- 
ing, during which time it is preferable to have the land in grass 
or clover. This disease is also transmitted by Pepper Cress, 
Shepherd's Purse, Candytuft and similar plants. This disease 
may also be distributed in manure from animals fed on diseased 
plants. 

Black Rot of Cabbage is a disease that has not attracted 
much attention until the last few years but has during that time 
caused much damage to cabbage and cauliflower. 

The first indication of this disease is upon the outer leaves 
of the plant which turn yellow and die in spots usually near the 
margins. Such leaves are also liable to wilt and careful exami- 
nation will show that the veins in and near the dead areas are 
blackened. These spots enlarge and gradually involve the whole 
leaf, from which it passes to the stem and to the rest of the 




moth Red Rock. The Savoys 
are of better quality than the 
ordinary drumheads but do net 
produce so heavily. Iney are 
desirable for home use. The 
best of this class is the Ameri- 
can Drumhead Savoy. 



Insects. — The insects in:uri- 
ous to the cabbage are the flea 



CABBAGE. 



153 



plant, causing it to rot. The dark colored veins in the freshly- 
cut stem and leaves are the best indications of this disease and 
are its characteristic marks. 

Cabbage that is even slightly affected will not keep, for this 
"•ot spreads rapidly in stored cabbage, and in selecting cabbage 
for storage, the stems and outer leaves should be examined for 
the blackened vein so characteristic of this disease. 

The germs ot the disease may pass the winter In the soi! 
and reinfect cabbage, cauliflower, turnips or similar crops anr* 
even such nearly allied weeds as Pepper Cress and Shepherd's 
Purse the following season. If diseased cabbage is fed to stock 
the disease may be distributed by the manure. 

Remedial Measures. — In view of the Lbove facts, it seems 
reasonable to take the following precautions: (1) Do not plant 
cabbage a second year on land where the disease is observed 
without several years intervening, during which no nearly allied 
crop has been grown on it. The seed bed should also be made in 
new soil each year pg the plants may become diseased v/hei 
vary young. (2) D AOt use manure for cabbage crops' from 
animals that have 'been fed uncooked diseased cabbage. (3; 
Since the disease may be spread by insects which fly from out, 

plant to another, they should be 
kept in check as much as possi 
ble. (4) When the disease ap- 
pears the field should be gone 
over systematically and all dis- 
eased leaves removed and de- 
stroyed as soon as they appear. 
If the disease has enter«=^d the 
stem the whole plant should be 
destroyed This destruction 
should .consist of burning or deep 
burial. (5) Since this disease fnay 
be continued on Wild Mustard, 
Pepper Cress. Shepherd's Purse 
Figure 70.-Brussells Sprouts. and other allied plants, they 

should be carefully kept out of 
land that has been once infested if it is intended for cabbage. 




VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Sauer Kraut.— The following recipe for sauer kraut is a very 
excellent one: SUce cabbage fine in a slaw cutter; line the 
bottom and sides of an oaken barrel or keg with cabbage leaves, 
put in a layer of the sliced cabbage about six inches in depth, 
sprinkle lightly with salt, and pound with a wooden beetle until 
the cabbage is a compact mass; add another layer of cabbage, 
etc., repeating the operation, pounding well each layer until the 
barrel is full to within six inches of the top; cover with leaves, 
then a cloth, next a board cut to fit loosely on the inside of the 
barrel, kept well down with a heavy weight. If the brine has 
not raised within two days, add enough water with just salt 
enough to taste to cover the cabbage; examine every two days 
and add water as before, until brine rises and scum forms, then 
lift off the cloth carefully so the scum may adhere, wash well in 
several cold waters, wring dry and replace, repeating this opera- 
tion as the scum arises, at first every other day, and then once 
a week, until the acetous fermentation ceases, which will take 
three to six weeks. Up to this time keep warm in the kitchen, 
then remove to a dry, good ce'ilar unless made early in the fall, 
when it may be at once set iii ihe pantry or cellar. One pint of 
salt to a full barrel of cabbage is a good proportion; some also 
sprinkle in whole black pepper. Or, to keep until summer: In 
April squeeze out of brine and pack tightly with the hands in 
a stone jar, with the bottom lightly sprinkled with salt; make 
brine enough to well cover the kraut in the proportion of a table- 
spoon of salt to a quart of water; boil, skim, cool and pour over; 
cover with cloth, then a plate, weight and another cloth tied 
closely down; keep in a cool place, and it will be good as late 
as June. Neither pound nor salt the cabbage too much, watch 
closely and keep clear from scum for good sauer kraut. — Buck- 
eye Cook Book. 

BRUSSELS SPROUTS. (Brassica oleracea.) 

Native of Europe. — Biennial. — This is one of the many varia- 
tions which the cabbage has taken on under cultivation. In this 
case where the head of the cabbage is ordinarily found there are 
loose green leaves and seldom a head. The stem is generally 
two feet or more high, vath leaves, and at the base of each leaf 
is a small cabbage which seldom attains a diameter of over two 
inches. These little cabbages are the parts eaten; they are 



CAULIFLOWER. 



155 



much more delicate than the common cabbage and highly es- 
teemed by many. The plant requires the same treatment as cab- 
bage except the plants can be grown nearer together. While 
easily grown it is doubtful about its becoming a popular vegeta- 
ble, since in most of our markets very little attention is paid to 
quality, and the common cabbage will probably continue to take 
the place of this vegetable on most tables. The variety most 
esteemed is known as Dwarf Brussels Sprouts. 

CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea.) 
Native of Europe.— Biennial. — Cauliflower is a form of cab- 
bage in which the inflorescence becomes fleshy and distorted. 




rig-ure 71 — Snowball cauliflower. 

It is, however, considered much more delicate than cabbage and 
brings a higher price. It is grown in' much the same manner 
as cabbage; the plants, however, are not so hardy in resisting 
cold weather as cabbage, are more sensitive to adverse condi- 
tions and should have more manure in the soil. As soon as the 
head commences to form, the outside leaves of the plant should 
be drawn together over the head so as to keep the sunlight away 
from it. Treated in this way the heads will be nearly snow 




156 VEGETABLE GARDENING, 

white, while if not protected they become brown in color and are 

not as salable. The crop 
ripens somewhat irregu- 
larly When danger 
of hard frost is appar- 
ent the immature heads 
should be pulled with 
roots and leaves and be 
planted out in a coll 
cellar or cold frame, 
where many of them 
will form good salable 
heads. The insect ene- 
mies are the same as 
those of the cabbage. 

Varieties. — There are 
many varieties, but per- 
haps, the most desir- 
able are the Snowball 

Figure 72.— Caidifiower plant with leaves and the Early Dwarf 

tied together to keep the sunlight off -r7(,,f„„f 

the head. This should be done as -Ciiii^iL. 
soon as the head can be seen, and the 
leaves should remain tied until the 
head is cut out. 

KALE, or BORECOLE. (Brassica oleracea var.) 
Native of Europe and Asia. — Anntial or biennial. — The seed 
is like that of the cabbage or kohl-rabi. LTnder this head is 
grouped a number of 
vegetables closely re- 
lated to the cabbage 
and Rohl-rabi that 
are used for greens. 
None of them are 
sufficiently hardy in 
the extreme north to 
stand out over winter. 
They are here cul- 
tivated in the same 

manner as turnips. In sections where the winters are mild, some 
of them are esteemed for planting in autumn for early spring use 




Figure 



-Dwarf Purple Kale. 



KOHL-RABi, 



157 



KOHL-RABI. (Brassica oleracea var.) 

Kohl-rabi has been derived from a plant nearly- allied to the 
cabbage, and its seed resembles cabbage seed. Its peculiarity is 
its swollen stem just above the ground, which is used for the 
same purpose and grown in the same general way as the turnip. 

It is more highly es- 




teemed than turnips 
for early summer use 
where well known. 
Like turnips it should 
be sown where it is 



to mature and used 
when young and ten- 
der. It may be stored 
in winter like tur- 
nips. 

Varieties.) — There 
are small tender va- 
rieties especially de- 
signed for table use 
and others that grow 
to large size and are 
valuable for feeding 
stock. Tyvo of the 
best for table use 
are the White and 
Purple Vienna. 

TURNIP (Brassica napus) and RUTABAGA, or SWEDISH TUR- 
NIP (Brassica campestris.) 

Native of Europe or Asia. — Biennial. — Cultivated for their 
swollen, fleshy roots. The varieties of turnip and rutabaga vary 
much in form, size and color of the skin, and the flesh is white 
or yellow, pungent or slightly acid. There is more difference in 
the varieties of the turnip than of the rutabaga. The flower 
stalks are produced the second year and bear a large number of 
yellow flowers. The seeds are smooth and round like the seed 
of the cabbage and cauliflower and in similar shaped pods. 




158 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Turnip. — The turnip is essentially a cold weather plant and 
does best when most of its growth is made during the autumn. 
It is grown to some extent in the spring, but there is very little 
call for it until cool w^eather. 




Figure 75. — White Strap Leaved Turnip, 



Culture. — The turnip needs to be grown very rapidly to have 
the best quality. The best soil for it is a friable, rich, sandy 
loam, free from fresh manure; sod land that has been recently 
broken up is excellent for this purpose, but on old land, i. e., 
that which has been cultivated for several years, or where there 
is fresh manure, the roots are often wormy. When grown for 
early use some quick maturing kinds should be planted as early 
in the spring as the soil can be worked in rows fifteen inches 
apart. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the seedlings 
thinned out two or three inches apart after all danger from the 
flea beetle has passed. (This insect is the same as that which 
attacks the cabbage.) Turnips grown for late use generally 
come in as a second crop after grain, strawberries, early pota- 
toes, cabbage or other crop that is off the land by the first of 
August, since after this time a good crop of many varieties of 
late turnips will mature before winter, though some of the large 
kinds need to be sown earlier i:i the season. The seed is some- 
times sown broadcast just before a shower or else it is harrowed 



TURNIP AND RUTABAGA. 



159 



in. It is also grown in rows about two feet apart and cultivated 
by a horse cultivator, or tbe rows may be put nearer together 
and a hand cultivator used. 

Varieties. — Some of the best varieties of turnips are: Early 
Flat and Extra Early Milan for early use; Red Top Strap Leaf 
and White Egg or White Globe for autumn use. 

Rutabagas, (also called Swedish Turnips), are grown in the 
same manner as the common turnips, but require about four 

weeks longer to attain edible 
size, and, on this account, 
should be planted by the mid- 
dle of June or first of July. 
They are grown in rows thir- 
ty inches apart and culti- 
vated with a horse hoe. Ruta- 
bagas are sometimes grown 
in beds and transplanted, but 
this is seldom, if ever, done 
with turnips. 

The seed of both turnips 
and rutabagas is so smooth 
and fine that it is generally 
sown too thick. Mixing the 
seed with flour is a good way 
to prevent its running too rapidly through the seed sower. The 
crop should be allowed to stay in the ground until the approacn 
of severe cold weather. They will stand some little freezing 
without injury, but will not live in the land over winter. They 
should be stored in frost proof pits or cellars. In dry cellars 
they should be covered with a few inches of sand or other ma- 
terial to prevent wilting. (See directions for keeping carrots.) 

Varieties.—Improved Purple Top Swede, and White Rock, 
are both excellent varieties of rutabagas. 

HORSERADISH. (Nasturtium armoracia.) 
Native of Europe.— Perennial.— Flowers white and small, in 




Figure '6— Rutabaga. 



160 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

long clusters; seed vessels small, rounded and almost always 
barren. Propagated by cuttings of the roots. 

Cultivation. — This plant delights in deep, moist soil, but will 
grow in almost any situation and is very hardy. For home use 
it is customary to let it remain in some neglected corner, where 
it kills out everything else, and though treated in this way it 
yields sufficient roots for home use; yet the roots are so crowded 
that they are scarcely salable. When grown as a market crop 
it is planted anew each year. Straight pieces of roots six or 
eight inches long, called "sets" are planted about twelve inches 
apart, in rows two feet apart early in the spring. The roots 
must be set right end uppermost or they will not grow smooth 
or straight. An iron bar is the most convenient tool for planting 
the "sets.'' The top of the sets should be about two inches 
below the surface. It is customary to grow horseradish as a sec- 
ond crop after peas or cabbage, by setting the roots between 
the rows of the first crop and cultivating the soil without re- 
gard to them until the first crop is harvested. It does not seem 
to hurt horseradish "sets" much if they are cut off a few times 
in cultivating early in the season. When the first crop is gath- 
ered the land is thoroughly cultivated, and the horseradish 
plants given good care. This plant makes its greatest growth 
in autumn a'^d is dug on the approach of winter or can be left 
until spring. It must never be left two years on the same land, 
or else great labor will be required to get rid of it, and the roots 
will be so crooked as to be almost unsalable. Horseradish is 
used almost entirely after grinding or grating the roots and mix- 
ing with vinegar. It will keep for any length of time when thus 
prepared and kept in air-tight packages. It is also ground and 
dried, and the young leaves are sometimes used for greens. The 
demand is limited, though considerable quantities are sold each 
year. Under some conditions it is a paying crop, but the busi- 
ness is very apt to be overdone. There are no varieties. 

WATER CRESS. (Nasturtium officinale.) 
Native of Europe. — PerenniaL — An aquatic plant with long 
Btems, which readily take root in moist soil or water. It is es- 
teemed for use as a salad on account of its pleasant pungent 
flavor. Leaves are compound, with roundish divisions; flowers 



WATER CRESS. 



161 



smpll, white, in terminal spikes; seeds, usually few, very fine, 
in slightly curved pods. 

Culture. — It can only be cultivated successfully in moist sit- 
uations and generally does best along the edges of streams, 
where it grows partially in the water. It may, however, be 
grown successfully in any moist soil, even in a greenhouse. It 
is very hard^^ but for best results should be covered with water 
during winter. Most of the supply for our markets comes from 
along the courses of natural streams. In Europe, trenches from 
16 to 20 feet wide for growing water cress are often excavated, 
into which running water may be turned at pleasure. In the 
bottom of these trenches, the roots of the cress are planted. The 
water is then let in, and the plants are not interfered with until 
they have grown strong enough to yield a crop of leaves. It is 
often practicable to make narrow beds about springs or slow 
running streams for this purpose. 

CRESS, or PEPPER GRASS. (Lepidium sativum.) 
Native of Persia.— Annual. — An early spring vegetable, used 
as a salad and for garnishing, and of the easiest culture. It 
should be sown very early in the spring in the hotbed or out- 
doors in rows one foot or less apart. As it quickly runs to seed, 
a succession of sowings should be made every eight or ten days. 
It is only in demand in the early spring or in winter. It can 
easily be grown in a window box in a dwelling house. Flowers 
white and small; seeds comparatively large. 

RADISHES. (Raphanus sativus.) 

Probably a native of Asia. — Annual or, in the case of the 
winter radish, biennial. — The flower stalks are branched, about 
three feet high and have white or lilac-colored flowers, but never 
yellow. The seed is roundish or oval, but somewhat flattened 
and much larger than cabbage or turnip seed and much more 
variable in size. Some recent experiments show that the large 
radish seeds germ)nate better and produce marketable roots 
sooner and more uniform in shape than small seed. 

Culture. — The radish is a vegetable of very easy culture. 
The roots of some kinds reach edible size in three weeks when 
grown in best conditions and are a favorite vegetable of early 



162 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



spring. It is a common practice to sow the seed of early kinds 
in hotbeds between rows of lettuce and outdoors between, or in 
the rows of beets, carrots, parsnips, etc. They will grow in al- 
most any soil, but new land is best for them. The seed may be 
sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, and if 
sowings are made once every two weeks thereafter a succession 
of tender roots may be had. 

Vv^inter radishes are grown and stored in the same manner 
and fully as easily as turnips. The seed is sown in June or July. 

and the roots gath- 

f ered in autumn and 

stored in cellars or 
pitted outdoors. They 
keep very well. Win- 
ter radishes closely 
resemble the er.rly 
kinds in quality, but 
are firmer in texture. 
The cabbage flea bee- 
tle affects the young 
radish plants in the 
late spring and sum- 
mer. (See chapter 
on insects for reme- 
dies.) The roots are 
sometimes infested 
with maggots, but 
these are seldom 
troublesome except 
where fresh manure 
Figure 77. — White Strasburg Radish. used or in land" 

where radishes have been grown for several years. It is best 
not to manure the land for radishes but use rich soil that has 
been put in good order by some previous crop. 

Varieties. — There are many kinds, differing from each other 
in color, form, size time of maturity and taste. They are gen- 
erally divided into early or forcing varieties, summer and au- 




RADISHES. 



163 



tumn varieties and winter kinds. A few of each are here men- 
tioned : 

French Breakfast. — One of the best very early radishes for 
the market, but small. It remains in good condition for only a 
short time, consequently is not desirable for the home garden. 

Early White Tipped Scarlet Turnip Shaped. — A handsome, 

round, early, popular 
radish, maturing very 
quickly. 

Early Deep Scarlet. 

— Very early, round and 
of deep scarlet color. 

Long Scarlet Short 

Top. — A well known de- 
sirable early kind hav- 
ing long scarlet roots. 

White Strasburg. — 

One of the finest half 
long kinds for summer 
use. Grows to good 
size; white and tender. 

Rose. — The most popular of the winter sorts. Skin pink. 

Black Spanish. — Skin very black, flesh white, firm, tender 
but very pungent. A good winter sort. 

THE CLOVER FAMILY. (Order Leguminosae.) 

The Clover family is made up of trees, shrubs or herbs 
which with few exceptions have a butterfly-shaped corolla, 10 
stamens, 9 of which are generally grown together. The fruit 
is known as a legume and is a pod that opens like the pea or 
bean pods. The leaves are alternate, chiefly compound, and 
have stipules. Besides the beans and peas, whose cultural di- 
rections are here given, the following are members of this fam- 
ily: Clovers, Vetch, Alfalfa and Lupine among farm crops, and 
the Common Locust, Kentucky Coffee Tree, Honey Locust and 
Yellow Wood among trees. 




Figure 78. — French Breakfast Radish. 



V 



164 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Annual. Ihe common beans in this country are natives of 
the warmer parts of South America. They are sometimes re- 
ferred to as kidney or French beans (P. vulgaris). Besides 

these, the Lima beans 
(P. lunatus) are culti- 
vated to a limited ex- 
tent. The common broad 
bean of Europe is an 
entirely different vege- 
table from the kinds 
generally grown here 
and is not sufficiently 
prolific in this section 
to make it worthy of 
cultivation. There are 
many varieties of beans, 
and the varieties of each 
species readily cross 
together, the flowers 
being especially adapt- 
ed to crossing. They 
vary from one another 
in many particulars; some are low, bushy and erect, while others 
are twining and have stems that grow ten or more feet in a season. 

There are many gradations between these extremes, as well 
as in size, color and shape of seed and plant. The twining 
stem kinds always twine from right to left around any support 
they can lay hold of. Horticulturally, beans are divided into the 
bush and pole varieties. Under the first class are included all 
the field varieties that are grown to be used as shelled beans and 
some snap and string beans. They have stout, erect or slightly 
running stems. Under pole beans are classed all the kinds 
that have twining stems and which are benefited by having sup- 
port of some kind. There are, however, dwarf bunch beans hav- 
ing the same general features as the pole kinds except the tall 
stem. While this division is by no means distinct, yet the 
methoflG :;f cultivation adapted to each growth are different. All 




Figure 79. — Bush Bean. 



BEANS. 



165 



beans are quite tender and should not be planted untiil the soil 
is warm and all danger of frost is over. They are sown for early 
use about the time for general corn planting. For the main crop 
they should be planted about the first of June. 

Bush Beans. — These are very easily grown and are adapted 
to a great variety of purposes. For a field crop on a large scale, 
the seed is generally sown with a horse drill or with a hand 
garden drill, in rows three feet apart. It is sometimes best to 
mark out the land first and then follow with the drill in the 
marks. Seed should be sown two or three inches deep. On a 
smaller scale, the land may be furrowed out with a one-horse 
plow or with a w^heel hoe and the seed sowed by hand. After 
culture consists in keeping the land well cultivated with a horse 
hoe and free from weeds. Varieties of dwarf beans for use in a 
green state, such as string or snap beans, may be sown 
at any time from the middle of May to the first of August 
and with good prospects of a good crop of green pods even at 
the latter date. Some kinds have edible pods in less than six 
weeks from the time the seed is sown. 

Harvesting 3eans. — For use in a green state, the pods of 
some kinds of beans are picked as soon as large enough to use 
and when they are tender and fresh; in other cases the beans 
are used when still fresh, but not until they are large enough 
to shell from the pods. Field beans are harvested by being 
pulled by hand or gathered with a bean gatherer when they are 
ripe, laid in rows until dry enough for threshing, then threshed 
at once or stored for threshing later on. Great care should be 
taken in storing the pods to prevent molding of the beans, and 
in threshing no" to break the beans. In a small way beans 
may be threshed out by hand, but on a large scale any common 
threshing machine may be used, providing suitable changes are 
made in it so it will not break the beans. 

Varieties of Bush Beans. — There are many varieties of bush 
beans having desirable qualities, but only a few of the most 
valuable are mentioned here: 

Field Beans. — White Marrow, Burlingame Medium, Navy and 
Snowflake. 



166 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Waxen Podded Beans— Dwarf Golden Wax and Dwarf Black 
Wax. 

Shell and String Beans.— Yellow Six Weeks, Early Mohawk, 
Cranberry and Dwarf Horticultural. 

Japanese, Soy or Soja Beans.— These are easily grown, but 
on account of their inferior quality are not much used here. 

Dwarf Lima Beans are highly esteemed by those who 
know them and, although smaller in size than the pole Limas, 
are supplanting them in this section and coming into quite gen- 
eral use, on account of their being more certain to mature well 

and requiring less labor in cul- 
tivation. They require the same 
methods of cultivation as other 
dwarf beans but should not be 
planted until the land is thor- 
oughly warmed. The best va- 
rieties are known as Hender- 
son's Dwarf, Durpee's Dwarf, 
Jackson Wonder (black spotted) 
and Kumerle Dwarf Lima. The 
common dwarf shell beans are 
early, productive and good, but 
not so rich in quality as these. 

Pole Beans. — The twiningva- 
rieties of beans are little grown 
Figure80-Dwarf Lima beans. this section, as the improved 

dwarf kinds take their place 
to a great extent. However, tall Lim.a beans are highly esteemed 
by many and the dwarf varieties of this class are not so desirable 
as the pole kinds. There is also a demand for such shell beans 
as the pole Horticultural, Cranberry and Caseknife varieties. 
Pole beans require stronger land than do the dwarf kinds. The 
ordinary way of growing pole beans is to set poles six feet long 
in hills four feet apart ^hch way. It is customary to put a shovel- 
ful of good compost or rotted manure in each hill if the land is 
poor. Seed should not be planted till the ground is quite warm — 
the pole varieties are more particular in this respect than the 
dwarf kinds. About six seeds should be planted two or three 




BEANS. 



167 



inches deep around each pole. In the case of Lima beans the 
general belief is that the beans should be planted edgeways with 
the eye downwards, but good results are often obtained by 
sowing the seeds without regard to this matter. This latter 
method is customary in sowing the dwarf Lima, and some who 
sow the large Lima beans in furrows and train them to trellises 
pay no regard to the position of the seed in the soil, but sow an 
abundance of seed so as to be sure of a good stand. Lima beans 
are generally shelled by hand when fresh but full grown and 
are sold by the quart. In warm climates they are sold in large 
quantities after being dried. The Cranberry and Horticultural 
kinds are generally sold in the pod. As soon as the seedlings 
commence to "run," it is customary to assist them in getting 
started, and some seasons it is necessary to tie the Lima beans 
to the poles until they are well started. Lima beans require an 
extra warm .'ocation and soil. 

Beans may be Transplanted if removed with much care when 
the soil is moist. Some very successful gardeners find that it 




pays them to start their pole Lima 
beans on pieces of sod or in pots 
or boxes in hotbeds and in this 
way they advance the period of 
ripening two weeks or more. This 
is a very desirable practice with 
pole Lima beans in this climate, 
since the short season often fails to 
mature much of the crop when the 
seed is planted in the open ground. 
The varieties of pole Lima beans 
best adapted to this section are 
probably the Large Lima and 
Dreer's Lima; both of these are of 
fine quality and productive. The 
small Lima or Sieva bean is 



Figure 81-Anthracnose o: -.ean ^'^^^^^^ ^han those mentioned but 
pod. Df inferior quality. 

Preserving Beans in Salt. — String beans are easily preserved 



168 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



in salt for winter use, using about seven pounds to, the bushel 



injury than those protected from a good circulation of air. 



The pea is an annual plant of uncertain origin, but probably 
a native of central Europe. The flowers are either white or 
violet colored, but the most desirable garden kinds, almost with- 
out exception, bear white flowers. 

Varieties of peas are divided into three classes, those having 
wrinkled seed, those having round, small seed, and those having 
edible pods. Wrinkled seeded varieties do not germinate as 
well as the smooth skinned or round sorts, nor do their germinat- 
ing powers last so long, nor are they so hardy in resisting the 
adverse conditions of early spring. On account of the latter 
reason, gardeners plant the round seed first in the spring, and 




of pods. In doing this the fresh 
tender pods are put at once into the 
brine as they come from the field. 
When wanted for use, they should 
be freshened out and cooked in the 
ordinary way. They are very good, 
and are nearly as desirable as the 
best canned beans. 



Figure 82 — Nott's Excelsior pea. 



Diseases and Insects— Beans are 
quite free from the attacks of any 
injurious insects or diseases. An- 
thracnose of the bean (Gloeospori- 
um lindemuthianum) shows itself 
by black spots on the stems or pods 
or both. It is sometimes very in- 
jurious in moist weather, but only 
in occasional years have W3 any- 
thing to fear from it. It is not gen- 
erally considered profitable to ise 
any of the fungicides, such as Bor- 
deaux mixture, which would read- 
ily prevent it. Beans grown in lo- 
cations where there is a good cir- 
culation of air are less liable to 



PEAS. (Pisum sutivum.) 



PEAS. 



169 



do not plant the wrinkled kinds until the soil is in best condi- 
tion and somewhat warm. The wrinkled kinds are better in 
quality than the round and smooth varieties. Peas having 
edible pods are not popular in this country, probably because of 
the ease with which string beans are grown. 

Culture. — Peas may be grown successfully in almost any 
good soil; they even do well on rather poor soil. The kinds hav- 
ing smooth seeds should be planted as soon as the ground can 
be worked in the spring — even a hard freeze does not hurt the 
plants as they are coming out of the ground, and they will stand 
considerable frost when well up The distance between the rows 
and the seeds in the row depend somewhat on the kinds grown. 
Some kinds branch out far more than others and, con- 
sequently, need more room in the row. They also 
vary in length of stem from ' a few inches to six 
or seven feet. The tall kinds require the rows to be five or 
six feet apart, while dwarf varieties are generally planted in 
rows thirty inches to three feet apart. The growing of tall kinds 
is mostly confined to private gardens, where it is customary to 
use brush or other material in the rows for support. Formerly, 
among tall varieties, were those far excelling in quality any- 
thing found among those of a dwarf habit, but recent introduc- 
tions of the latter kinds have shown a great improvement in 
quality, until now the dwarf sorts are generally grown, even 
by the most fastidious.. In common practice, the seed is 
sown about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, putting 
about ten seeds to each foot of row. It is best to sow plenty of 
seed in order to secure a good stand. The land should be well 
cultivated between the rows. Unleached wood ashes or some 
other fertilizer rich in potash and phosphoric acid is most bene- 
ficial for this crop. As it belongs to the leguminous section of 
plants, it is a nitrogen producer and, consequently, does not need 
much nitrogen in the soil. Early peas as generally grown are out 
of the way in time to allow the land to be used for late cabbage 
or string beans. V/hen it is desired to extend the season of table 
peas, successive showings should be made at intervals of two 
weeks, up to the tenth of June. During the summer the vines are 
too liable to mildew to make late spring planting successful. 
The pea is distinctively a cool weather plant and on this account 



170 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



it will often do well when sown in the latter part of summer for 
use in autumn. 

The Canning of Peas is an important industry in some sec- 
tions and could be more generally introduced into this section to 
advantage. In sowing peas for canneries it is the practice in 
some sections t- sow them with a common grain drill, leaving a 
path between each strip for the pickers. 

Varieties. — Of the many varieties only a few of the best are 
referred to here. For very early use, almost every seedman has a 
strain of smooth, round peas, which he sends out under his own 
peculiar name. The early sorts are generally derived from the 
old Daniel O'Rourke, and among them are varieties known as the 
First and Best, Earliest of All and Improved Extra Early. As a 
rule, these should be used for first planting only, to be followed 
by plantings of the wrinkled sorts. 

American Wonder is a very dwarf early pea of unsur- 
passed quality and very hardy for a wrinkled sort. A rich soil 
and extra cultivation are required to get the best results from it. 
If only one variety is to be grown, this is perhaps the best to 
plant. 

Stratagem. — Very productive and 
justly very popular, having remarl:- 
ably large pods filled with rich, sweet 
peas. It does better on light than on 
heavy soils. 

Yorkshire Hero. — An excellent 
variety. 

Marrowfat. — Among the most pop- 
ular of the old varieties. 

Champion of England. — A tall 
growing, popular sort, of best quality, 
that does best when supported by 
brush or wire netting. Late. 

Telephone. — Of excellent quality. 
Pods and seeds large. One of the 
most productive and, consequently, very popv.lar. Late. 




Fig-ure 83— Dwarf Okra. 



OKRA. 



171 



Bliss's Abundance. — Half-dwarf, branching, of excellent qual- 
ity and very productive. Late. 

Nott's Execlsior. — A new, very productive, early dwarf va- 
riety that is becoming very popular, and in some sections much 
preferred to the American Wonder. 

THE MALLOW FAMILY. (Order Malvaceae.) 
The mallow family is known by its numerous stamens which 
have their filaments grown together and are attached to the base 
of the petals. The petals are twisted together in the bud. Seeds 
kidney-shaped. Herbs or shrubs mucilaginous with very tough 
fibrous bark, none of them poisonous. Okia is the only plant 
of this family v/hich is frequently grown in gardens, but the 
common cotton plant also belongs here' as well as the abutilon 
mallow, hibiscus, althaea and hollyhock of our gardens. 



OKRA. (Hibiscus esculentus.) 

Native of South America. — Annual. — The seed is round and 
of medium size. It is cultivated for its green seed pods, which 
are highly esteemed for soup. Little grown except at the south. 
It is of the easiest culture. The seed should be sown about two 
inches apart in rows two feet apart and in rich, warm soil, at 
about the time for planting beans. The pods are produced abun- 
dantly but are perhaps not as tender when grown in our dry 
atmosphere as they are in the south. The flowers are large, yel- 
low and very pretty. 

The varieties known as Dwarf Green and Long Green are 
best for our climate. 



THE PARSNIP FAMILY. (Order umbelliferae.) 

The parsnip family is made up of herbaceous plants come 
of which are aromatic and others that are acid-narcotic poisons. 



V 



172 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



The flowers are small and generally arranged in compound um- 
bels; no calyx, but in place often have five minute teech, five 

.petals, five stamens and 
two pistils. The dry fruit 
usually splits into two 
parts and the seed of most 
species has oil tubes. The 
leaves are alternate and 
more commonly compound 
or decompound. Besides 
the parsnips, parsley, car- 
rot, celery, whose cultural 
directions are here given, 
dill, anise, caraway, cori- 
ander and fennel will be 
found under the head of 
garden herbs. 



PARSNIPS. 

(Pastinaca sativa.) 

Native of Europe. — Bien- 
nial. — Cultivated for its 
long, tender root. Seeds 
light brown in color, flat 
and marked with five rais- 
ed lines or ridges. Seed 
stalks three to five feet 
high with large umbels of greenish flowers. 

Culture. — The parsnip is grown in the same manner as the 
carrot, but is rather more particular about the soil on which it 
grows. Then, too, in manuring the land for this crop, it is 
important to use only manure which is well rotted, as the ap- 
plication of fresh manure seems to encourage the formation of 
side roots. Also on harrl land, there is often a tendency for the 
roots to form side roots, and, as what i* desired is a rather 
thick tap root, side roots are to be avoided. It is important *^ 




Figure 84. — Parsnip plant in flower. 



PARSNIPS. 



173 



BOW the seed early and quite thick and then to thin out in order 
to be sure of having a good stand of 
plants. The seed germinates rather slow- 
ly. It is a very hardy crop and may be 
left in the ground until late autumn or 
even over winter. In fact, many believe 
that freezing parsnips in the ground im- 
proves their quality. They may be safely 
pitted outdoors by putting them in heaps, 
covering with a few inches of hay or 
straw and then a foot of earth. Treated in 
this way, they can be taken out at any 
time during the winter or early spring. 
It is not advisable to leave the crop in 
the ground over' winter, since it cannot 
then be dug out until the frost -is out of 
the ground in the spring, by which time 
the demand for parsnips will have consid- 
erably lessened. If kept in an ordinary 
cellar, they should be covered with earth 
or sand to prevent wilting. 

Ir marketing the parsnip, it is often 
customary after trimming off all side 
shoots, to sell them by the basket without washing. A far bet- 
ter and more equitable plan is to sell them by weight. In some 
of the best markets, the roots, after being carefully washed 
and trimmed, are packed evenly in boxes, sixteen inches square 
and eight inches deep, which hold just a bushel. Packed in this 
way, they present a very neat appearance. 

The Hollow Crown or Student Parsnip is the best kind to 
grow for table use. 

Turnip Rooted Parsnip, which is short and round, is used 
to some extent. It is a good form on light soils, but for rich land 
the Hollow Crown is to be preferred. 

PARSLEY. (Carum petroselinum.) 
Native of Sardinia — Biennial. — The leaves of some varieties 
of this plant are used in a fresh state for garnishing and sea- 
soning, and in the case of a few kinds the fleshy roots are used. In 




Fig-ure 85— Hollow 
Crown Parsnip. 



174 



VEGETABLE aARDENING. 



habit of growth parsley resembles the parsnip, to which it is 
closely related. The leaves, however, are variously cut and di- 
vided. A few varieties are grown for their fleshy roots. 

Culture. — Parsley is grown in much the same manner as the 
parsnip, and, like, it, its seed germinates rather slowly. The 
seed is often sown for winter and early spring use in green- 
houses and hotbeds. The leaves may be used as soon as big 
enough. The roots may be taken up in autumn and grown in a 

greenhouse or in 
a box in a sunny 
window for a 
winter supply. 
The demand is 
quite limited. It 
is sold in small 
bunches and may 
be found in the 
larger markets at 
any season of the 

Figrure 86.— Fine curled parsley. year. It seldom 

comes through our winters safely when left exposed outdoors 
but sometimes does so when well protected. 

The Varieties commonly grown are the Double Curled and 
Fine Leaved, either of which makes a border that is pretty enough 
for a flower garden, and it is often used as an edging for small 
kitchen gardens. 

CARROTS. (Daucus carota.) 
Nati^^e of Europe. — Biennial. — In the wild state this root is 
valueless, being slender and woody, and the plant is a bad weed. 
Under cultivation it exhibits the widest difference in shape, size 
and color. Some kinds have roots that are broader than long 
and extend not over two or three inches in the ground, while 
others attain a length of two feet, and still others may be found 
having the various intermediate forms between these extremes. 
There are also varieties having red, white and yellow flesh. The 
leaves are very much divided and deeply cut. The flowers are 
white and crowded together in compound umbels on stalks two to 
five feet high. The roots of the cultivated kind will stand con- 




CARROT. 



175 



siderable frost, but not severe freezing. Two seeds are pro- 
duced by each flower; they are flat on one side and convex on 
the other, and are partly covered \y minute bristles. When sold, 
the bristles have generally been removed. Carrots are used to 
some extent as a table vegetable, but they are especially valuable 
as a food for horses and other stock. 

Cultivation. — The carrot ? of the easiest culture. It re- 
quires a fine mellow, rich, uplanc soil. On moist land the roots 

are apt to branch and 
are much liable to dis- 
tjase. The seedlings 
are quite delicate when 
they first come up and 
every precaution should 
be taken to have the 
land clean, so that the 
small seedlings v%'ill not 
be overrun with weeds; 
the surface soil should 
be kept loose and mel- 
low throughout the sea- 
son. It is a good plan 
to sow a few radish 
seeds with the ce^rrot 
seed so that cultivation 
may be commenced 
early, as the latter 
start slowly. If the 
Figure 87-Carrot plant in fiower. seed of the small kinds 

are sow-.i very early in 
spring they will pro- 
duce roots big enough for table use by early summer; 
but for the main crop the seed should be sown about the middle 
of May in rows fourteen inches apart. A fair crop may be ex- 
pected even if the seed is not sown until the middle of June, 
although the dry weather which generally prevails at that time 
of the year is liable to prevent or retard the germination of the 
seed or to burn up the seedlings just as they are pushing out 




l76 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

of the ground. The crop is sometimes sown in rows two feet 
apart and cultivated with a horse implement. If the seed is good, 
two pounds per acre, or about fourteen seeds to the foot of row, 
is plenty to sow. Very thick seeding is not desirable, as the cost 
of thinning in such a case is considerable. It is best for the 
experienced grower to have all the conditions just right and 
then to sow the seed so that little, if any, thinning will be neces- 
sary. However, the beginner will very likely find it safest to sow 
a large amount of seed, perhaps three pounds per acre, and thin 
out so that the plants will stand three inches apart in the row. 
The richer the soil the more room the roots require in the row; 
if small roots are wanted they may be left an inch apart in the 
row. 

Gathering. — One of the greatest outlays in raising carrots 
is in gathering and topping the crop. The topping may be done 




Figure 88. — Harvestingr long- carrots and parsnips by plowing- the eartn away on 
one side, and then puUing the roots by hand. 

by hand, after being plowed out, but hand labor is very costly. 
Some growers go over the rows and cut the. tops off with a sharp 
hand hoe. If the tops of the roots are cut off a little no harm is 
done, as it does not increase the liability to rot as is the case 
with beets. The roots are, perhaps, most easily dug by plowing 
close to each row and then pulling them out by hand. For this 
purpose a subsoil plow is best, but any good plow will answer 
the purpose fairly well. If a short rooted variety is grown and 



CARROT. 



177 



the land is mellow, the plow ma.y often be run so as to turn the 
roots out on top of the furrow slice. 

Storing- — Carrots are easily kept over winter in cellars, 




Figure 89. — Varieties of Carrots. 1— White Belgian. 2— Long Orange. 
3 — Orange Danvers. 4— Ox-Heart. 5 — Pointed-Rooted. 6 — Blunt- 
Rooted Horn. 7 — Extra Early Forcing. ' {After Landrcth.) 

providing they are in a temperature near the freezing point and 
are not too ripe when dug. If the seed has been planted too 
early, the roots will ripen up early in the fall and will cease to 
grow, and many of the leaves will turn yellow. Such roots do 
not keep well, but are liable to sprout badly long before spring. 



178 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



even if kept cold. To have the roots keep best they should be 
growing rapidly when dug. In dry cellars, it may be necessary 
to cover with loam or sand to prevent those on top of the bin or 
pile from wilting. If they are to be fed early in the winter, they 
may perhaps be piled in the barn and covered with chaff and 
straw sufficient to keep out the frost until used. 

Carrot seed is raised by planting out the roots in the spring, 
about two feet apart, in rows four feet apart. The seed heads 
ripen irregularly and are gathered as they ripen and threshed 
when dry. The seed is generally rubbed against a sieve having a 
fine mesh to take the bristles off, otherwise it would be a difficult 
matter to sow it in a machine. 

The torcmg of carrots is carried on to a limited extent, for 
which purpose they may be sown between rows of radishes in 
the hotbed or greenhouso. 

Varieties. — For very early table use the Short Scarlet is best. 
For general use in summer and for winter use, perhaps there 
is no better variety than the Danvers. The Guerande Half 
Long, or Oxheart, ,is a variety that is very thick and short and 
yields nearly as much as the Danvers. It has the advantage, 
moreover, of being easily pulled by hand without any digging. 
The White Belgian is a large cropper, but only of value as food 
for stock. Thirty tons of carrots are sometimes raised on one 
acre, but in ordinary practice seldom more than half that amount 
is raised. 

CELERY. (Apium graveolens.) 

Native of Europe. — Biennial. — The plants are grown for the 
fleshy leaf stalks, which are very tender when blanched; one 
form is also grown for the large fleshy roots. The whole plant 
has a pleasant aromatic flavor. The seed stalks are branching 
and grow from two to three feet high, and have very small yel- 
lowish or greenish flowers in compound umbels. The seed is 
small, triangle and five-ribbed, having the characteristic aro- 
matic flavor of the plant. 

Celery is a crop that is very liable to suffer from the want 
of rich, nitrogenous manures and from a superabundance of or 
a lack of moisture in the soil. On this account it should be 



CELERY. 



17^ 



grown on retentive, yet well drained, rich land. Well drained 
bog land with the water about eighteen inches from the surface is 
often excellent for this purpose. 

Early Celery. — The seed for early celery is generally sown 





Figure 90.— Celery plants. Those on left have been transplanted and 
show in consequence an improved root system for planting out. 
Those on right were only grown in seed bed without transplanting 
and have not as good roots for planting out. The plants with tops 
trimmed are ready for planting out. 



the latter part of February or early in March in boxes in ^a green- 



180 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



house. As soon as the plants are of sufficient size to handle 
well, they are pricked out into other boxes or into hotbeds, where 
they remain until large enough for planting out, which is some- 
time in May. The tops of the plants should be sheared off once 
before they are pricked out and again before they are planted to 
the open ground, as this makes them stocky and helps them to 
recover from transplanting. If the leaves are all left on the 
plants when they are set out, they generally dry up an in so 
doing take away much moisture from the roots. The plants 
should be hardened off before being set out. Early celery should 
be bleached by being covered with boards or with boards and 
straw, since the ordinary way of bleaching it by banking with 
earth is liable to bring on disease in warm weather. 

Late Celery. — The greatest demand for celery is during the 

autumn and winter 
months, and very little is 
marketed during the sum- 
mer. The seed for au- 
tumn and winter celery is 
generally sown in April in 
the open ground, al- 
though some of our best 
growers sow the seed in 
hotbeds or cold frames 
April, before the land outdoors can be 
all. If the seed is sown outside, a piece 
land is generally selected. The seed is 
drills .about nine inches apart and one- 
deep, and the soil is well firmed over it 
ing. Some growers do not cover cel- 
all, except by rolling or patting it 
the back of a spade. If there is dan- 
seed drying out, some growers shade 
cotton cloth or with a lath screen rais- 
ed about Pi^"^^ Celery. f^^^ ^vq^^ ground and so made 
as to keep off about one-half the sunlight. Another plan 
is to cover the bed with burlap after sowing the seed and water 
the seed through it; in this latter case, however, it is very im- 




early 

worked 
of fine rich 
sown in 
quarter inch 
after cover- 
ery seed at 
down with 
ger of the 
the bed with Fig. 91 



-White 



CELERY. 



18] 



portant to watch carefully and remove the cloth covering as soon 
as the plants appear. The seed germinates slowly. The seed- 
lings are quite weak and should receive almost constant cultiva- 
tion. The tops should be sheared off once or twice, as recom- 
mended for early celery, to make the plants stocky; they should 
also be thinned out so that there will not be over twenty or thirty 
plants to the foot of row. When sufficiently large, they should 
be moved to the field where they are to grow. Treated in this 
way, the plants will be strong and stocky; if left to crowd one 
another, they probably will be weak and poor. Some successful 
growers prefer to transplant once to narrow rows before setting 
in the field where the crop is to mature. This makes the final 
transplanting most certain by increasing the fibrous roots, but is 
not generally necessary, although a good plan under unfavorable 
conditions. 

In the growing of celery plants it will often be a good plan 
at the first transplanting to make up a special bed for them. 
This should be done as follows: A place four feet wide and of 
any length should be selected, the top soil to the depth of about 
three inches thrown off, and then rotten manure such as ihat 
which comes from spent hotbeds or similar material put in to 
the depth of about three inches. The top soil should then be 
returned and the plants set out in it. Treated in this way the 
young plants will develop a- compact root system in the manure, 
and may be transplanted with a ball of roots almost as well as 
if they had been grown in pots. Plants ^-rown in this way are 
especially desirable when transplanting must be done in a dry 
time, but seedbeds require much water. 

Planting. — Having good plants, the next thing is to set them 
so as to get a good crop. It is quite a common practice in some 
sections to grow celery as a second crop after early peas, lettuce, 
cabbage or beets. In such a case the plants, perhaps, had better 
not be set out until the first crop has been gathered; but where 
only one crop is to be grown the plants may be set as soon as 
big enough. This will generally be from the middle to the latter 
part of June and for latest use the latter part of July. The land 
should be thoroughly plowed, harrowed and smoothed off. Fur- 
rows six inches deep should then be made where the plants are 



182 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



to go, and in these about three inches of fine, v/ell-rotted ma- 
nure or compost should be placed. This manure should be thor- 
oughly mixed with the soil, and the furrow nearly filled. For 
mixing the manure and soil perhaps there is no better imple- 
ment than a one horse cultivator with tho teeth set close to- 
gether. If the land is unusually rich in plant food, there is no 
need of going to this trouble, but the plants may be set right 
after the marker. In any case the rows should be four or five 
feet apart for the common kinds that have to be bleached by 
banking up with earth, but the self-bleaching and dwarf kinds 
can be managed in rows three feet apart. The plants should be 
about six inches apart in the rows. 

Before the plants are dug from the seedbed, it should be 
thoroughly soaked with water; the plants should have the tops 
cut off, trimmed, and the roots dipped in water. If the roots are 
very long they should be shortened so they may be easily han- 
dled. The place where they are to be planted should be moist, 
and every precaution taken to prevent the plants drying out 
when they are being moved. Special attention should be given to 
planting on freshly plowed land and to firming the soil around 
the roots. If the land is dry it must be watered before it is safe 
CO set out celery plants, and if the weather is very hot and dry 
che plants must also be shaded from the sun. The ground should 
be kept clean and mellow between the plants with a horse culti- 
vator throughout the season. 

If, while the crop is growing, it is thought the plants re- 
quire more food, it may be supplied by plowing a shallow fur- 
row away from them on one side and putting in fine well-rotted 
stable manure, hen manure or compost and covering it with soil. 
This treatment supplies the food directly to the roots and is very 
effective. Nitrate of soda or other nitrogenous fertilizer may 
also be used to advantage rn this way. 

Celery and Onions Together. — In some sections celery is 
grown as a second crop with onions. In this case every fourth 
or fifth row is left vacant when the onion seed is sown, and this 
space is set out to late celery plants at the proper time. If the 
onion seed is sown by the 20th of April, almost any of the well- 
known commercial sorts like Yellow Danvers or Red Wethers- 



CELERY. 183 

field will be ripe by the middle of August, when they can be 
harvested; and then the celery can occupy all the land during 
the cool weather of autumn, when it makes its most rapid 
growth. 




Ficurc No 92. — CeleiT plant? which ha^^e been transplanted from the 
seed box into moist soil that is rich in rotted manure. Thus treat- 
ed, the celery forms a close, compact :'Oot system, to which the 
soil adheres in lumps" when taken up. and on this account the 
plants are very sure to start well when set out permanentlv in 
the field. 

Handling. — As celery grows naturally it spreads on the sur- 
face of the ground, like the carrot. The term handling refers to 
the process by which the leaf stalks of each plant are drawn 
together and some earth pressed firmly around them by the 
hands, to hold them in an upright position. After this is done 
more earth is drawn towards the plants with a hoe, until there 
is enough to prevent their spreading open. All celery plants 
should have this uprie:ht form before being stored, and it is all 



184 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

the bleaching treatment necessary for the self-blanching kinds. 
The land should be thoroughly cultivated and a furrow turned 
towards the plants on each side of the row before the handling 
process is begun, so there may be plenty of loose earth to work 
with. 

Bleaching with Earth or '^Banking." — If the celery is in- 
tended for marketing previous to the first of December, it should 
be banked up or otherwise bleached in the field. Banking up 
is done immediately after "handling." It consists in plowing 
earth against the celery to begin with and then finishing it off 
with a shovel or wide hoe until the earth is banked up to the 
full height of the celery. This had better be done in several 
operations as the plants grow and need it. 




Fig-ure 93— Celery banked up for bleaching. 



Bleaching with Boards. — Celery that is to be marketed early 
should be bleached with boards, because if "banked" with earth 
it is more liable to become diseased. Boards ten inches wide 
are the best but narrower boards may be used nearly as well, 
providing the earth is first drawn towards the plants for them 
to rest on. The plants are generally handled before the boards 
are put on, but this is not absolutely necessary, although desira- 
ble. A board should be put upon each side of the row quite 
close to the plants and be held in place with ^ peg. If for any 
reason there are vacancies in the row or the plants are not 
close enough to exclude light from the stalks when the boards 
are put up, the vacancies may be filled with hay or straw. For 



CELERY. 



185 



late autumn use it is probably best to bleach the plants with 
earth, as it also protects from frost and is much cheaper than 
bleaching with boards when the first cost of the boards and 
the handling of them is considered. In fact, almost all growers 
use earth to bleach their late celer:^. 

Planting in Beds. — Some growers prefer to plant celery in 
beds four feet wide and to have the plants set ten inches apart 
each way in the beds; in which case a four foot path is left 



^ Fig-ure 94 — Celery grown in beds and earthed up to bleach. 

between the beds for convenience in cultivation and weeding. 
In this way a very large amount of celery can be grown on a 
very small piece of land. By putting boards up on both sides of 
the paths, the plants will take on the upright form, so that 
handling will be unnecessary. For late use the plants may be 
taken directly from the bed to the cellar without banking, but it 
vfill generally be found a good plan late in the fall to pack the 
spaces between the plants with hay or fill them with earth from 
the paths, as they will then be protected from frosts. If the 
celery is to be blanched in the bed, this, of course, would be 
necessary. To grow plants so close together successfully requires 
the utmost care in the preparation of the land. It should be 
covered with fine rich manure, preferably in the spring; the 
plants also require tc be frequently and heavily watered, since 
the land will be free of roots. 



186 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Digging Celery. — Celery will stand many light frosts, but 
hard freezing is liable to injure it, and it should never be han- 
dled when frozen. It is seldom safe to allow it to remain un- 
protected in the ground in this section after the middle of Octo- 
ber, but by covering the plants with straw or other material they 
may often be safely left in the field until the middle of Novem- 
ber if well banked up. The plants are generally lifted with a 
spade after a furrow has been plowed away from the row on one 
side. Most of the soil should be shaken off the roots and the 
old outside leaves removed before storing. In this section, to 
keep well, celery should be stored in a cold, moist cellar or frost- 
proof shed. If it does not w^hiten quickly enough the plants may 
be watered and kept warm and thus started into growth, which 
results in forming the tender white shoots very quickly. 

Storing Celery. — For home use a good way to keep celery is 
to pack the plants closely together, upright, in boxes twelve to 
eighteen inches wide, with the bottom covered with several 
inches of moist sand, a little of which should be worked in 
among the roots. There is no need of having sand between the 
plants. These boxes, when packed, should be kept in a cold, 
damp cellar. In storing for market use, where there is plenty 
of storage room, the plants are sometimes "heeled in" in sand on 
the floor; the cheapest practicable way, however, is to pack them 
between boards about nine inches apart. To do this, place the 
first board on one side of the cellar or shed nine inches from 
the wall, with its upper edge at a height from the floor a little 
less than the length of the cellar. The boards may be supported 
by stakes and should not rest on the ground. In this narrow di- 
vision the celery should be packed upright, as described for pack- 
ing in boxes. As soon as the first tier is filled, erect another 
board division at nine inches from the first, and so continue 
until the whole surface is covered. No soil or sand is packed 
among the stalks of celery, but three or four inches of either is 
placed on the floor, into which the roots are bedded. The temper- 
ature of the celery should be kept very low, and even a little 
frost in the cellar will not hurt it. If dry, it must be watered, 
but water must not be put upon the leaves, as it may bring on 
rot. If celery is wanted for immediate use, it may be stored in 



CELERY. 



187 



barrels or troughs containing an inch or two of water. This is 
also a very good way of hastening the bleaching process. 

The green stalks of celery do not become white, and the 
term "bleaching'* is a misnomer. The ''bleaching" of celery is 
simply the result of the plant making growth in the dark. 
Bleached celery will keep but a short time and should be used 
as soon as white. Celery for use in the latter part of winter 
should be quite green in color when put into winter storage; for 
early winter use it should be partly bleached when stored. For 
winter use celery should be left out as late as is safe in the 
fall, so that the cellar or pit where it is to be stored may be 
thoroughly cooled off before it is put in. 

The Time Required for Bleaching Celery in the field will de- 
pend upon whether it is growing rapidly or not. During the first 
part of September, when it is making a rapid growth, it will 
probably be fit to use in three weeks from the time it is banked 
up; while later on, when the weather is cool and the celery is 
growing slowly, four weeks will be found necessary. The same 
conditions affect the bleaching process after storing. In an 
ordinary frost proof cellar, it may easily be bleached in three 
weeks by watering it and then raising the temperature to fifty 
degrees. 

Celery Seed is raised by wintering the roots and planting 
them out in the spring, in much the same way that seed of the 
carrot and other biennial plants is grow^n. 

Diseases. — There are two diseases, rust and leaf blight, that 
sometimes seriously injure celery, but they are not commonly 
very troublesome. As a rule, celery growers do not attempt to 
fight them, but select the healthiest varieties and trust to good 
cultivation to enable the plants to resist them. The diseases re- 
ferred to are described as follov/s: 

Leaf Blight. (Septoria Petroselini var. apii.) All parts of 
'he celery plant except the roots are liable to the attacks of this 
/ungous disease. Watery spots appear on the stems and leaves, 
vhich soon show small, black dots. This disease may be spread 
by the seeds, which are likely to become infected. 

Treatment. — The first precaution is to plant clean seed. 
That which is spotted or speckled with the black spots of disease 



188 VEGETABLl^] GARDENING. 

should be avoided. In addition it would be a good plan to spray 
the young plants with Bordeaux mixture on the first appear- 
ance of the disease. 

Celery Blight, Rust or Sun-Scald. (Cercospora apli. — [Fries.]) 

The first indication of 
this disease is the ap- 
pearance of yellowish 
spots on the leaves. 
These finally run to- 
gether and turn the en- 
tire leaves yellow and 
then brown. 

Treatment. — Secure as 
healthful conditions as 
possible. Where the 
plants are somewhat 
shaded, they are less lia- 
ble to the disease than 
if in the full sunlight. 
This disease is especial- 
ly bad in very dry loca- 
tions. It is reported that the Bordeaux mixture and other 
standard fungicides will entirely prevent it. 

Varieties of Celery. — The dwarf kinds are the best to grow; 
the red varieties are of excellent quality but do not take well 
in the markets. For early marketing the White Plume is highly 
esteemed and probably the most profitable variety for general 
marketing. Its stalks and leaves are white without going through 
the bleaching process but are not of as good flavor as when 
bleached. Golden JSelf Blanching is another similar variety, that 
is considered by some growers superior to White Plume. One 
of the best flavored as well as best keeping kinds is the Golden 
Dwarf, or Golden Hearted Dwarf. Other good varieties are the 
Perfection, Hartwell, Giant Pascal and the Boston Market. 

Celeriac, or Turnip-Rooted Celery, is a form of celery culti- 
vated for its roots, which are eaten either cooked or raw. The 
stalks are generally hollow and quite worthless. The plants are 
raised by the same method as that for celery but may be planted 




SWEET POTATOES. 189 

In rows not over twelve inches apart. The roots are generally 
kept by storing them in moist sand the same as carrots. 

Marketing. — Celery is marketed when well blanched. In 
preparing it for market most of the roots are trimmed off and 
the green and decaying leaves are removed. About a dozen roots 
are generally tied together for a bunch, although the size of the 
bunch varies in different markets. Celery can be easily shipped 
long distances when trimmed and packed in tight boxes. Much 
of that which is supplied to the markets of this section comes 
from Kalamazoo, Michigan, where it is raised on drained swamp 
land. 

THE MORNING GLORY FAMILY. (Order convolvulaceae.) 

The Morning Glory Family includes mostly twining, trailing 
or rarely erect plants (some tropical species are shrubs or trees, 
ours are herbs.) Commonly with some milky juice, alternate 
leaves, no stipules, regular gamopetalous flowers; fruit a 2-4- 
valved capsule. The Sweet Potato is the only vegetable that 
occurs in this group which is here mentioned. This family also 
includes the Morning Glory, Bindweed and Man of the Earth. 
SWEET POTATO. (Ipomea batatas.) 

Native of South America. — Perennial, but cultivated as an 
annual. — It is a near relative of the morning glory and scarcely 
resembles the common potato in any particular. It probably can- 
not be profitably raised in the extreme northern states, but may 
be grown in a small way in warm, sandy soil as far north as 
Minnesota and will produce even there very large tubers. The 
plant never flowers at the North and is never cultivated from 
seed. 

Culture. — The sweet potato is raised from sprouts, which 
are produced abundantly if the tubers are planted in a hotbed 
in the early spring. The sprouts are carefully pulled from the 
tubers and are planted out after the soil has become warm. 
They should be set two feet apart in rows four feet apart. They 
need considerable care until ' started, after which they require 
good cultivation only and are easily grown. The vines spread 
on the ground and have a tendency to root at the joints, which 
should be discouraged by moving them at every hoeing. They 
are very susceptible to cold weather and should be pulled as soou 



190 VEGETABLE GARD'ENING. 

as the tops are frosted. There are many cultivated varieties in 
the South. For the northern states, Early Carolina is perhaps 
the best. 

THE POTATO FAMILY. (Order Solanaceae.) 
The Potato Family is made up of mostly herbaceous plants 
with rank-scented Herbage (this and the fruit more commonly 
narcotic-poisonous J, colorless juice, alternate leaves, regular 
flowers with the parts usually in fives. There are many poison- 
ous plants in this group, which fact led to the tomato being re- 
garded with much sus- 
picion for many years 
and the tops of pota- 
toes and even tubers 
that have become green 
by exposure to sunlight 
contain a poisonous 
principle. Besides the 
potato, tomato, egg 
plant. pepper and 
strawberry tomato, 
wnose cultural direc- 
tions are here given, 
the Tobacco, Petunia, 
Nightshade. Datura, 
Salpiglossis. Jerusalem 
Cherry and Xierem- 
bergia of the gardens, 
belong to this family. 
Fig. 96 — Sweet potatoes and piece of vine. 

POTATO. (Solanum tuberosum.) 
Native of the high mountain regions of South America.— 
Grown as an annual, but truly a perennial through its tubers. 
Its stems are more or less four angled. The flowers vary ir 
color from white to purplish. Many kinds do not flower, and 
most varieties seldom if ever produce fruit. The fruit is a round- 
ish or slightly oval berry, of a green color or tinged with violel 
brown and averaging about an inch in diameter. The pulp is 




POTATO. 



191 



green and very acrid. The, seeds ara white, kidney-shaped and 
flat. The seed is never sown except for producing new varie- 
ties. Seedlings vary greatly and often do not obtain full size 

until three years old. 
The tubers are com- 
monly referred to as 
''seed," but they snould 
be regarded as cuttings 
or sets; they are only 
svrollen underground 
branches filled with 
starchy matter. They 
vary much in size and 
shape and in color of 
skin, from white to al- 
most black, including 
yellow, red and blue. 
There are a thousand 
or more of named va- 
rieties, but many of 
t.-em are scarcely dis- 
tinguishable from oth- 
E'igtire 97— Potato plant showing- tubers and roots named kinds 

Origin of the Modern Potato. — Fifty years ago potato rot ran 
over w^estern Euro^pe and the United States to such an extent as 
to bring starvation in regions where potatoes were the princi- 
pal article of diet; no one knows where the potato came from 
that was cultivated previous to that time. Rev. Chauncey Good- 
rich, of Utica, N. Y., urged before agricultural societies and the 
agricultural committees of the New York legislature that potato 
rot resulted from lowered vitality of the potato plant, due to its 
being grown under high cultivation and in climates and soils 
Qot wholly congenial to a sub-tropical plant, native to a small 
section only of the earth's surface; and he claimed that the 
way to restore its vigor would be to get varieties from the part 
of South America that was the home of the potato. His theories 
were laughed at by scientific men, and the legislative committee 
told him he knew more about theology than about plant diseases. 




192 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Being thus repulsed, he attempted on his own account what he 
felt should be undertaken by the state. Mr. Goodrich commenced 
his experiments about 1848 and at various times for many years 
imported potatoes from South America, and from these and their 
progeny he raised many seedlings. Among eight kinds re'i:eived 
at one importation (probably from Chili) was a variety that he 
called the Rough Purple Chili. It ripened late in the season and 
was generally hollow, but it had flesh of fine texture and was 
free from rot. From seed saved from this he raised the Garnet 
Chili, which was a popular variety for many years in New York 
state. The Garnet Chili was parent of the Early Rose and of 
Brazee's Prolific and other Brazee seedlings and, indeed, of 
nearly all of the desirable varieties of Europe and America which 
have been prized for half a century. Although from some of his 
other importations he also raised a few very good sorts, yet the 
progeny of the Rough Purple Chili gave him the most valuable 
kinds. Among Goodrich's other seedlings were Gleason, Calico, 
Harrison and Early Goodric)ti. The latter was the parent of 
tne Chicago Market. 

Mr. Goodrich is said to have raised about sixteen thousand 
seedling potatoes from 1848 to 1864. Out of this large number 
he found only about one in a thousand that he thought enough 
better than the old sorts to make it appear probable that they 
would be desirable for cultivation. The work that he did in this 
line has been of great value to Europe and America. 

Soil and Manure. — If given proper treatment, potatoes can 
be grown on soil of almost any composition, provided it is well 
drained, but a light, rich soil is best. The kind of soil to 
some extent affects the quality of the tubers; grown on sandy 
soil, they are generally of better table quality than on clay soils, 
and when grown on muck land the skin is generally dark col- 
ored and the flesh not mealy. New soil is most desirable, and in 
it the tubers are generally healthy; sod land is m.ost excellent 
for this crop, but the "seed" should always be under the sod and 
not on top of it. If planted on the sod the crop is very certain 
to suffer from drouth in dry seasons. It rs not generally advisa- 
ble to manure the land the season of planting potatoes, hut 
preferably to apply it to some previous crop, but if manure is to 



POTATO. 



193 



be applied, it should be well rotted. Raw stable manure is gener- 
ally to be avoided, unless it can be applied a year in advance. 
In applying manure, it is very important not to use that from 
animals which have been fed on scabby potatoes, as such ma- 
nure is liable to cause scabbiness in the crop. 

The Sets (commonly called "Seed.") — The tubers for plant- 
ing should be sound and not sprouted — though if sprouted they 
may do well; sprouting injures the vitality of the potatoes and is 
harmful. We should regard the potato much as we do a willow 
or other plant that grows freely from dormant cuttings if it has 
the right soil conditions, for the tuber is truly a stem. Given 
good sound seed potatoes for planting and good soil conditions, 
it matters liitle how the sets are cut, provided that every eye 
that grows is on a piece of potato large enough to nourish the 
young sprout until it has a good rt)ot system and enough ex- 
panded leaves to gather and digest its own food. In practice 
the "sets" should have one, two or three eyes according to 
whether the tubers have few or many eyes. Varieties with few 
eyes such as the Rural New Yorker No. 2, should be cut to 
about one eye to a piece, while those having many eyes should 
have two or three to each piece. Very small seed pieces will 
not give a full crop, consequently large pieces are desirable. The 
biggest crops are not likely to come from the planting of whole 
tubers, but such sets generally give a larger proportion of small 
potatoes than cuttings made as recommended. The constant use 
of small tubers for sets undoubtedly causes varieties to "run out," 
and, although it is a practice that may be occasionally followed 
without serious results, it should generally be avoided. 

Varieties of potatoes seldom retain their pristine vigor and 
productiveness many years except in very favorable locations. 
On some land, even with the best of care, they are apt to "run 
out," and, as a rule, it is a good plan to occasionally get seed 
stock from locations very favorable to the best development of 
the potato or, at least, to change for seed potatoes grown on a 
different kind of Ir.nd. 

In saving potatoes for seed, it is desirable to select them 
in the field from hills having the largest number of marKetable 
tubers, as there is then a tendency to fix this desirable quality. 



194 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



When selecting from the bin, take smooth, even, medium-sized 
potatoes; the largest tubers will not necessarily give the largest 
yield. If planting is done on a small scale it will probably be 
found more economical to cut them by hand. Some of the auto- 
matic seed potato cutting machines leave a good many pieces 
without eyes, and on this account hand fed potato cutters are 
most desirable for general use, although where land is very cheap 
the automatic feed machines may sometimes be the more eco- 
nomical. 

Early Planting. — For early use potatoes should be planted as 
soon as the ground is nicely settled. Light, sandy loam is best 
for this purpose. The tops are quite sensitive to frost, but, as 
they start slowly, they seldom get up until all danger from frost 
is past. If when pushing out of the ground there is danger 
from frost, the tops are easily protected from it by covering 
them lightly with loose earth from between the rows, through 
which they soon push again. If frozen off when several inches 
high the crop is generally seriously lessened, even though new 
sprouts take the place of those injured. For early crops, the 
ground may be plowed several times in the spring to expose it to 
the air and to warm it before planting. The sets for the early 
crop should not be covered quite so deep as for the main crop, 
but in other particulars the crop should be treated the same 
way, and the quickest maturing kinds only should be planted. If 
the tubers for early sets are spread out in a light, warm room for 
three or four weeks before planting, healthy green sprouts will 
start from the eyes, and, if in cutting these sprouts are care- 
fully handled so as not to break them off, the crop will be much 
earlier than if the sets were not thus started; they may also be 
started in a hotbed before or after being cut and afterwards 
transplanted to the open ground; but these methods are seldom 
practiced except in a very small way, although in some sections 
they might perhaps be made profitable. 

Main Crop. — For the main crop of potatoes, it is desirable to 
have the seed in the ground pretty early. It is customary in 
this section to plant from the middle of May to the first of June. 
When planted later they are liable to suffer seriously from 
drought, and earlier planting is more desirable. The results of 
many experiments show that the sets should be planted about 



POTATO. 



195 



four inches deep, at sixteen inch intervals, in rows three feet 
apart. This work may be done by furrowing out with the plow 
or horse hoe, planting by hand and covering the sets with the 
plow, though when planted on a large scale the work is generally 
done by a potato planter. There are several excellent potato 
planters on the market. Some good growers prefer to plant the 
sets in check rows three feet apart each way when the land is 
weedy, but so much space between the plants is not generally 
desirable, since under ordinary circumstances thorough harrow- 
ing when the crop is young will destroy all weeds. If the sets 
are planted four inches deep, very little hilling up is required; 
if planted much deeper the digging is quite difficult; if planted 
nearer the surface, the tubers are liable to push out of the 
ground and require to be hilled up, ^ which is not desirable. The 
land should be harrowed or thoroughly cultivated with a Breed's 
Weeder as soon as the smallest weeds can be seen or a crust 
forms on the land after planting. It is entirely practicable to 
harrow potatoes at least three times, the first time just before 
the plants show, the second when they are just above ground 
and the third when the plants are three or four inches high. 
Little if any harm will be done the plants by this work, provid- 
ing a slanting tooth harrow is used. Such treatment will do 
more to remove weeds than a good hand hoeing, and the expense 
of the operation is almost nothing. If the work is properly done, 
there is seldom any need of hand work with this crop. Subse- 
quent cultivation should consist in keeping the soil loose between 
the rows, and a little earth should be thrown against the plants. 
For this purpose a good horse hoe will do excellent work, but a 
still better implement is a two-horse cultivator that works both 
sides of the row at one operation. It is not a good plan to hill 
up potatoes, and it should not be done unless they are pushing 
out of the ground, when they will turn green if not covered up. 
Cultivation should be thorough when the plants are young but 
is not desirable after the tops have made most of their growth. 

Digging Potatoes. — Early potatoes are generally dug as soon 
as they are big enough for cooking if there is a good market for 
them; for winter use it is very desirable to have the tubers well 
ripened; if not ripe the skin will peel off when handled, and 
they do not look well. When potatoes are high in price it may 



196 



VEGETABLE GARD'ENING. 



pay to dig them by hand, for which purpose tined garden forks 
are desirable; the best potato diggers, however, do as good 
work as can be done by hand, and are generally used by those 
who raise this crop on a large scale. When potatoes are cheap, 
they should be dug with a potato digger or plowed out; though 
when plowed out some tubers will get covered up, most of 
these may be brought to the surface by the use of a straight 
tooth harrow. If the tubers are keeping well in the ground, it 
is a good plan to delay the digging until the cool weather of 
autumn, when they may be carried directly from the field to the 
cellar. If they are rotting in the ground or are "scabby," they 
should be dug at once, and if the cellar is cool they may be put 
at once into it, but, otherwise, it is a good plan to pit them in 
the field until cool weather comes. 

Pitting in mild weather is done by putting the tubers into 
heaps and covering them with straw or hay and a few inches 
of loam. The straw should be allowed to stick out along the top 



A 




Fig-ure 98.— Potatoes pitted for winter. 



of the heap for ventilation, so as to allow the moisture to pass 
off. In the colder weather of late autumn, the covering, ot 
course, should be heavier, and when potatoes have ceased to 
sweat there is no need of ventilation. In milder sections, pota- 
toes are stored through the winter in such pits, but it is imprac' 
ticable here. However, even in Minnesota, potatoes may be safe- 



POTATO. 



197 



ly kept over 'vinter in trenches or pits made below the ground, 
although a good cellar is a more desirable place. For this 
purpose the pit should not be large; a good size is four feet wide 
and deep and not more than six feet long. It should be filled 
heaping full with the potatoes and covered with six inches of 
straw and eighteen of soil. Ventilation is given until cold weath- 
er sets in and the potatoes are cooled off. The whole pit should 
then be covered with enough litter or manure (generally about 
two feet) to keep out the frost. Such pits can only be opened in 
mild weather. If this work is well done, the potatoes will be in 
fine condition in the spring, but beginners are very apt to fail 
of success in this method of storing, and they should attempt it 
only on a small scale. It is better to make several pits close 




"varieties of early potatoes. 1— Ohio Jr. 2— Early Ohic 
3 -Burpee's Extra Early. 4-Early Harvest. 5-Freeman. 6-Good Ne^^s. 

together rather than one large one, since in a large one the pota- 
toes are more likely to sweat. The sunlight should not be al- 
lowed to shine on them for any length of time, since it causes 
them to turn green and develops a poisonous substance in them. 
If kept in a cellar, the bins are improved by having slatted floors 
and sides, so that there muy be some circulation of air through 
them to prevent heating at the bottom. The bins should not be 
large nor more than five feet deep. There is a great difference 
in the keeping qualitiec of varieties; as a rule the early kinds are 



198 VEGETABLE GARD'ENING. 

hard to keep from sprouting in the latter part of winter, and the 
late kinds keep the best. 

Starch. — When potatoes are low in price, they can often be 
profitably worked into starch, but for this purpose starch fac- 
tories must be near by. Such factories are not expensive and 
should be more common in this section. 

The demand for potatoes seems destined to increase very 
much. There is a growing demand each year from the eastern 
and southern states for northwestern grown potatoes. Under 
ordinary cultivation, in this section, they seldom yield more than 
150 bushels per acre of marketable tubers, and the average even 
in favorable years is probably not over 120 bushels per acre. 
There are, however, recorded yields here of 800 bushels per acre, 
and they often yield over 400 bushels. 




Fig-ure 100.— Six good varieties of late potatoes. 1— Rural New Yorker No. 2. 
2— American Wonder. 3— Irish Cobbler. 4— V^orld's Fa^r. 5— Woodbury 
White. 6— Carman No. 1. 

Varieties. — There is a very great difference in varieties, but 
many kinds closely resemble one another. There is quite a 
difference in the adaptability of varieties to soils. The large 
coarser kinds are good for starch but not desirable for table use. 
Most markets prefer a white or pink potato, rather long, oval in 
form and smooth, but the fashions change and vary considerably 
Some of the varieties at present regarded with much favor are 
tbe following: 



199 



Early Ohio. — The most popular early kind and a good sort 
for the general crop, productive and very early. 

Burbank, or Burbank's Seedling, is an excellent late kind 
and a good keeper, but seems to be running out in some sections. 
It cooks a little soggy until winter, when it is of excellent table 
quality. Form long and '^ound. 

Rural New Yorker No. 2. — Form flat, roundish oblong, very 
productive. Quality a little inferior and sometimes inclined to 
be hollow. Very popular in some sections. It is undoubtedly 
much influenced by the soil in which it grows. 

Early Rose is the progenitor of most of our good kinds. It 
was introduced into cultivation about 1868 and is still productive 
in the best potato districts of this section but is not now adapted 
to general use. 

Other varieties of special merit of the early kinds are Early 
Acme; of medium and late kinds' are American Wonder and 
White Proliflc. 

Note on Propagation. — New varieties of potatoes are gener- 
ally high in price, and it is desirable to increase them rapidly. 
This may be done as follows: Place the tubers in rich soil in 
boxes or in pots, without cutting them, in a warm, light room, 
hotbed or greenhouse. As soon as the sprouts are nicely fur- 
nished with roots, break them off at the surface of the potato 
below the roots and plant separately in pots. New sprouts will 
start from the eyes ap-ain, and the process may be repeated until 
the tuber is exhausted. By another way, the tubers are cut up 
and planted in good rich loam. As soon as the shoots are six 
inches or more high, about three inches is cut off the top of each. 
These pieces are put in moist sand, watered frequently and al- 
lowed all the sunlight they will stand without wilting and treat- 
ed the same as it is common to treat cuttings of house plants. 
In two or three weeks they will be rooted and may be potted in 
rich soil. These shoots may again be cut when nicely started, 
and so on. The plants thus grown are planted out when the 
weather is settled in the spring. For best success with these 
methods of propagation, the work should begin in the late winter 
or very early spring. 

Insects. — There are but few insects that do serious injury to 



200 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



the potato in this section, and the most important of these is the 
Colorado potato beetle, or "potato-bug," but it may also be in- 
jured by blister beetles, wire worms and white grubs. (For reme- 
dies for these pests, see chapter on insects.) 

Diseases. — There are several diseases that sometimes injure 
the potato. The most common of these are known as the scab 
and the blight. Scab is a term used to refer to the rough patches 
with which potatoes are frequently covered. Potatoes so infected 
are lessened in yield, and on account of being unsightly and 
rough do not sell readily. The term blight refers to a disease 
that kills the tops. 

Scab of Potatoes is caused by a fungous plant working in 
the surface of the potato. The germs of it are very abundant and 
live for many years in the soil and also over winter on the pota- 
toes. If these germs are fed to stock they undoubtedly grow in 
the manure, and the use of such manure may often be the cause 
of infection. Also they may be spread in the soil by natural 
drainage and land receiving the drainage from infected fields may 
become infected with me disease without ever having had pota- 
toes on them. Scabby seed potatoes when planted on new or old 
potato land will generany produce a scabby crop, but the amount 
of the disease will generally be much more on the old land than 
on the new. 

Perfectly clean seed potatoes planted on land which is free 
from the scab fungus will always and in any season produce a 
crop of smooth, clean potatoes, no matter what may be the char- 
acter of the soil; but apparently clean seed potatoes may hav(^ 
the germs of the scab fungus on their surface. This is often the 
case where they have been sorted out from a lot that is some- 
what infected with scab. In this latter case the tubers should, 
at least, be thoroughly washed in running water to remove any 
germs that may be present or, what is better yet, be treated with 
corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride) as recommended be- 
low. 

Land infected by the germs of potato scab will produce a 
more or less scabby crop, no matter how clean and smooth the 
seed used. 

Scabby potatoes should be dug as soon as mature, since the 



POTAfO. 20i 

scab fungus continues to grow on the potatoes as long as the^^ are 
in the ground. 




I 

Treated. Figure 101— Potato Scab. Not Treated. 

Both plates grown from the same lot of scabby seed. 

Scabby potatoes may be safely used for seed provided they 
are first treated in such a way as to destroy the germs of the 
scab that adhere to them. There are many methods of doing 
this but the most practical now used are as follows: 

Corrosive Sublimate Treatment. — Procure from a druggist 
two ounces of powdered corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichlor- 
ide) ; put this into two gallons of hot water in a wooden or 
earthenware vessel and allow it to stand until dissolved. Place 
thirteen gallons of water in a clean barrel, pour in the solution 
of corrosive sublimate and allow it to stand two or three hours, 
with frequent stirrings in order to have the solution uniform. 
Select potatoes as nearly free from scab as can be obtained; 
put the seed potatoes into bags, either before or after cutting 
them, and then dip them into the corrosive sublimate solution 
and allow them to stay in for an hour and a half. If seed pota- 
toes are treated in this way and then planted on land free from 
scab, the resultant crop will seldom be seriously injured by scab. 
The expense of this treatment, including labor, should not ex- 
ceed one dollar per acre, as the material may be used repeatedly. 



202 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

But the treated potatoes should never be fed to animals, as cor- 
rosive sublimate is a deadly poison. 

Formaline Treatment. — This material should be mixed with 
water at the rate of eight ounces (one half pint) of commercial 
formaline to fifteen gallons of water. The potatoes should be 
soaked two hours in it. If this method is used the seed should 
be planted within two or three days after treatment. This ma- 
terial gives equally as good results as corrosive sublimate. It is 
slightly more expensive, but the expense is light in any case. It 
has, however, great advantages over the latter in that it is not 
poisonous and being a liquid is easily diluted for use and may 
be placed in any kind of a receptacle. This material does not in 
any way injure the tubers or make them dangerously poisonous. 
One pound of formaline, costing not more than 50 cents, will 
make thirty gallons of the disinfecting solution and is enough to 
treat fifty bushels of potatoes. If the solution stands a long time 
it will probably lose strength. 

Exposing to Light. — If the tubers are exposed to the full sun- 
light for several weeks before planting the scab germs will be 
largely destroyed. It would be a good plan to turn such potatoes 
occasionally in order to expose them fully to the light. 

Blight of Potatoes is a disease which attacks the leaves and 
stems of potatoes, and sometimes even the tubers are affected. 
It is most prevalent during moist, warm weather, when some- 
times the fungus may be seen as a delicate white mildew on the 
stems and leaves of the potato vines. In seasons favorable to it, 
the tops of an entire field may be killed in a few days from the 
time the disease was first noticed; at other times the tops die so 
gradually that it is mistaken for a natural dying of the vines. 
Rotting of the tubers often follows the dying of the tops. It has 
been quite clearly shown that this disease may be kept in check 
or the trouble entirely prevented by spraying the tops with the 
Bordeaux mixture occasionally. It is, however, somewhat doubt- 
ful about the benefits being sufficiently certain in this section to 
justify the expense; but should this disease become more abun- 
dant it may prove to be a paying operation. The cost of treating 
one acre with the Bordeaux mixture is about $5. There is lit- 
tle use of applying this material after the damage from the dis- 



POTATO. 



203 



ease is apparent, as it must be used as a preventive and used 
before the disease is seen. 

Bordeaux Mixture is made as follows: Dissolve five pounds 
of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in ten gallons of water in a 
wooden or earthenware vessel. As this substance dissolves very 
slowly in cold water and solutions of it are very heavy, it is well 
to suspend it near the top of the water. (It dissolves more 
quickly in hot water.) In another vessel, slake five pounds of 
good fresh quicklime in ten gallons of water. When the mixture 
is wanted, pour the blue vitriol and lime slowly at the same time 
into a barrel containing thirty gallons of water, stirring all the 
time. When thoroughly stirred the mixture should be of a clear 
sky blue color. After being mixed for a day or two the mixture 
loses much of its strength, so it is well to use only that which 
has been mixed for a short time. There are many formulas used, 
which vary as to the amount of, lime and water, but the above 
gives good satisfaction when used properly. 

Internal Brown Rot is the name given to a disease which 
has recently appeared in a few potato growing sections of this 
country. It is first noticed by the darkening more or less of the 
starchy portion of the tubers, without any manifestation of its 

presence on the outside; later 
on the potato rots. The life 
history of this disease is not 
known, nor are any remedies 
known for it. Ordinary pru- 
dence, however, would indi- 
cate that seed potatoes in the 

Fig-ure 1U2.— Internal brown rot of the least affected with this trOU- 
potato. , , 

ble should not be planted. 

EGG PLANT. (Solanum melongena.) 

Native of South America. — Annual. — Stem erect and branch- 
ing; flowers solitary and violet in color; seeds flat, of medium 
size. The egg plant is but little used in this section, but can be 
grown to perfection in our hot, dry summers. The seed must 
be sown, even earlier than tomato seed, in the greenhouse or hot- 
bed, but when only a few plants are wanted it will be found best 




204 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



to buy the plants, as they require delicate handling. The plants 
are set in rows three two feet apart, after 
the ground is well warmed up, which is seldom 
before the 10th of June. 

The fruit attains marketable size by the 
last of August. The plants are ver\^ liable to 
the attacks of the potato beetle. The best 
variet}^ is the New York Purple, but the variety 
Figure 103 — Egf §^^0^^^^ Long Purple is somewhat earlier. 

Plant. 

TOMATO. (Lycopersicum esculentum.) 

Native of South America. — Perennial, but generally treated 
as an annual. — The tomato is a branching plant, generally with 
flexible stems that require support to grow erect. Its flowers are 
yellowish and grow in loose clusters on the stem, opposite or 
nearly opposite leaves, not axiliary; fruit, a true berry, red, 
pink or yellow in color; seed, kidney-shaped, flat, with a rough- 
ened surface. In many parts of this^ section, the tomato can be 
successfully grown as a market crop, and there is no place 
where it cannot be grown in sufficient quantities for home use. 
The cultivation of this vegetable for canning purposes is already 
occupying the attention of farmers in a few localities in this sec- 
tion, and it is an industry that is destined to greatly increase in 
the future. It is one of the easiest and surest crops to grow, 
providing one has good plants to start with. 

Growing the Plants. — It is especially important to sow the 
seed before the first of April, and the middle of March is thought 
about the right time by most growers. The seed grows easily 
but needs considerable heat and rich soil to do its best. The 
plants should be transplanted after they have their second leaves 
and again when they get crowded, so that they may become 
stocky and strong. The seed may be started in greenhouses or 
hotbeds; it is also easily grown in window boxes. If too close 
together, they grow weak and poor. It is very important that 
the plants should be well hardened off before they are set in 
the open ground. 

The land preferred for tomatoes is a rich, retentive sandy 
loam, but they will do fairly well on almost any well drained 




TOMATO. 



205 



soil, and even if on rather poor soil will do better than most 
crops. A southern slope is preferable, but they will ripen almost 
anywhere if properly managed. The tomato pre-eminently needs 
a warm place, and if rich manure is plowed into the soil it is 
beneficial, since by its fermentation it raises the temperature of 
the land. 

Transplanting and After-cultivation. — The plante should be 
moved to the open ground as soon as all danger of severe frost 
is past, which will r^enerally be about the 20th of May in south- 
ern Minnesota and not until the 1st of June in more northern 
sections. They should be set about five feet apart each way 
and about six inches deep. If the stems of the plants when 
planted out are very long, they should be partly buried under 
ground. They need thorough cultivation, which can best be given 
by a horse cultivator on a large scale. 

Pruning and Training. — Tomato nlants under field cultivation 

are generally allowed 
" to run over the ground 
in any direction and 



and training to a stake, 
Figure 104.— Tomato plant growing- in a and then pinching off all 




arenottrained; but even 
under this method of 
management itisagood 
plan to cut off a foot or 
more of the ends of all 
growing shoots about 
the middle of August if 
they are growing rap- 
idly, so that all the 
strength of the plant 
may go to ripen the fruit 
that is well formed and 
still green. Some grow- 
ers advise pruning off 
all but one main stem 
and two or three laterals 




206 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



what doubtful. It is a good plan in a small garden to cover the 
land under the vines after they set fruit with a little hay, so 
that the fruit may be kept from getting dirty in case they are 
not trained. This covering should not be heavy enough to keep 
the ground from getting plenty of sunlight. 

Tomatoes in Very Severe Locations. — When there is danger 
of frost in August, a sufficient supply of tomatoes for family use 
may be grown on the south side of a house, wall or other protec- 



tion, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. Where 
this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way Is to grow 
a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the build- 
ings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large as a 
coal oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink the 
barrel about one-third its depth in the ground and pack the 
earth around it. Fill it about half full of fresh horse manure well 
tramped down and pour a bucketful of hot water on this manure. 
Then put on eight inches of good soil and then a mixture of well- 
rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quantities, 
until you reach within about twelve inches of the top of the 




Figure 




llr) uays. lu — vvaiuoii. j-j- — juo.uiiictj_i o 
13— Early Wilcox. 14— Clover Crest Giant. 



TOMATO. 



207 



barrel; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three 
plants in this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these 
shoots from each plant to stakes or near-by building, but allow 
the other three shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the 
barrel. Be careful to give plenty of water daily — a gallon each 
day will be none too much. Three or four old barrels treated in 
this way and placed in sunny exposure will produce all the toma- 
toes needed by a family of four or five persons. 

Prolonging the Tomato Season. — In autumn the tomato sea- 
son may be prolonged by pulling the plants with the unripened 
fruit on them and hanging them in a shed, where they will 
continue to ripen fruit for some time. The larger tomatoes will 
ripen very well if picked off and kept in a shady place. 

Saving Tomato Seed. — Tomato seed should be saved from 
the best tomatoes from vines producing the largest amount of 
good fruit. The tomatoes should be thrown into a barrel as 
fast as they ripen and be allowed to ferment until the seed 
separates readily from the pulp, when they should be put into 
water and thoroughly stirred. The skin and pulp being lighter, 
the seed is readily separated from it. The seed should be dried 
at once by spreading it out thinly in a dry place. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties of tomatoes adapted 
to general cultivation. Among the best of these are Acme and 
Dwarf Champion, which are early, smooth kinds having a 
pink skin. Of the red-skinned sorts Perfection and Beauty are 
very good. The earliest varieties are not always the best to 
grow for a general crop, as they are inferior to the varieties men- 
tioned. However, in many unfavorable locations it may be best 
to grow them, as they do very well for home use. Of these 
the earliest Is called Earliest of All, but there are several other 
very early kinds. 

Insects. — The tomato is subject to few insect pests. It is 
sometimes attached by the potato beetle. The remedy is Paris 
green and water, as recommended for the same insect when it 
attacks the potato. 

Tomato Rot. — There are several diseases that attack the 
tomato when grown in greenhouses, but only that known as the 
"rot" is often seriously injurious to plants grown in the open 



208 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

field. This is a fungous disease, the germs of which lodge in 
the end of the fruit when it is very small, probably often just 
as the flowers fall off. By their growth, they rot the end of the 
tomato and often cause much loss. ♦ 




Figure 106— Tomato rot. 

Remedies. — The disease lives over winter in the ground 
where the rotten tomatoes have fallen. The diseased fruit should 
therefore be gathered and burned or buried a foot or more 
deep, where they will not be disturbed in the spring. Some varie- 
ties are much more liable to rot than others. The Dwarf Cham- 
pion is perhaps less affected than many other kinds. Experi- 
ments with spraying the young fruit with Bordeaux mixture or a 
solution of sulphide of potassium at the rate of one-half ounce 
per gallon, are said to Lave given good results in some cases, but 
it is generally considered impracticable to do this, on account 
of the labor necessary to do the work well. They are less liable 
to rot when growing on new land than on land that has been 
used for several years in tomatoes. 

GROUND CHERRY, or STRAWBERRY TOMATO. (Physalis sp.) 

Native of North and South America. — Perennial. — There are 
several species of Physalis that produce edible fruit. Among 
those inrligenous to northern United States is one quite common 
in old timber land in northern Minnesota and elsewhere. The 



PEPPERS. 209 

fruit resembles a tomato but is about the size of a cherry and is 

enclosed in a husk formed of the 
calyx. The seed is dark colored, flat 
and round. The fruit is used for pre- 
serves and sauces. 

Culture— It is a plant of the earli- 
est culture and when once sown gen- 
erally covers the ground in following 
years from self sown seed. The seed 
should be planted about the first of 
I^Iay. The plants spread about thirty 
inches. 



PEPPERS. (Capsicum annuum.) 

Native of South America. — Peren- 
nial, but in cultivation grown as an 
annual. — There are many varieties, 
differing chiefly in the shape of their 
fruit. All of them have erect, 
branching stems, which become al- 
most woody. The leaves are spear- 
shaped; flow^ers, white, star-shaped, solitary in the axils of the 
leaves; fruit generally hollow with a somewhat fleshy skin, at 
first dark green, but when ripe turning yellow, red or dark 
violet. The seeds are flat, and, like the flesh of the pods, have 
a very acrid, burning taste, for which the plant is cultivated and 
used in giving flavor to pickles, etc. Their germinating power 
lasts about four years after being separated, but if left in the 
pods they will keep much longer without injury. 

Culture. — Peppers need practically the same cultivation as 
the tomato or egg plant, except that they may be planted two 
feet apart, in rows three :'eet apart. 

Varieties vary much in the shape of the pods and the acridity 
of their juice. The kinds most commonly grown are as follows: 




Figure 107— Grctrnd Cherry 
or Strawberry Tomato. 



Ruby King. — Fruit very large, bright red. smooth, mild fla- 
vored and proliflc. The best for general use. 



210 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Long Red Cayenne. — Fruit long and slender. Very pungent 




Figure 108— Varieties of Peppers. 1— Bird's Eve. 2— Tomato Shaped. 3— New 
Orleans. 4— Golden Beli. 5— Very Small Caveniie. 6— Sweet Spanish. 
7-Cluster. 8— Ruby King-, g— Celestial. {After La7idreth.) 

THE MARTYNA FAMILY. (Order Martiniaceae.) 

MARTYNIA. (Martynia probosidea.) 
Native of southwestern United States. — Annual. — A coarse- 
growing, spreading plant, having a peculiar shaped fruit that is 
used for pickles. The flowers are large, irregular and rather 
pretty. The fruit is tender when young 
but is nearly as hard as horn when ripe. 
The seeds are black with a rough surface. 

Culture. — This is a plant of the easi- 
est culture. The seed should be sown as 
soon as the soil settles in the spring, in 
hills about three feet apart each way. 
Where seeds are allowed to ripen, plants 
usually appear the following spring. 
There is onlv one kind. 

Figure 109— Martynia. 

THE GOURD FAMILY. (Order Cucurbitaceae.) 
The gourd fanrtily is made up of mostly tendril bearing herbs, 




SQUASH. 211 

with succulent but not fleshy herbage, watery juice, alternate 
palmately ribbed and mostly angled or lobed leaves, pistillate 
and staminate flowers separate and both kinds generally on the 
same plant. Calyx grown to ovary, petals commonly united, 
stamens usually three, of which one has a one-celled and the 
others two-celled anthers, but commonly the anthers are much 
twisted and often all combined into a head and the filaments are 
sometimes grown into a column. The fruit is unusually fleshy 
and the seed is flat and made up entirely of embryo. It is 
commonly believed that some of the species in this group readily 
cross, but if it occurs at all it is but rarely, and squash and 
pumpkins have never been successfully crossed with melons. 
Besides the squash, pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon and 
cucumbers, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs 
here the gourds and wild cucumbers of the gardens. 

SQUASH. (Cucurbita.) 

The term squash does not signify any botanical division, 
but is an American name that is applied to a large number of 
varieties of gourds which in common parlance have come to 
be classifled separately. The term often includes what are 
sometimes called pumpkins. 

The term gourd is applied to all the members of Cucurbita 
pepo and includes the Scallop and Crookneck Squashes, fleld 
pumpkins and the small, very hard-shelled fruits of many 
shapes and colors borne on slender vines that are grown chiefly 
as curiosities under the name of gourds. The latter are what are 
commonly known as gourds. 

Pollenizing the Flowers. — The flowers resemble those of the 
cucumber and melon, being separate on the same vine. The 
pistillate flower is produced at the end of the miniature squash; 
the staminate flower is often called the "false blossom," and its 
oflBlce is to produce pollen only. They are naturally pollenized by 
insects. 

The crop is made more certain by having bees near by to 
pollenize the flowers. In some places, the absence of manj- in- 
sects is the reason why cucumbers, melons and squashes, which 
are similar in the construction of their flowers, fail to produce 
much fruit, though the vines may grow freely. This is a 



2:12 VEGETABLE GARDENING^ 

comnion complaint in some new prairie sections, as tliere is 
often a deficiency of pollenizing insects in such places. Where 
small cucumbers, squashes and melons fall off and fail to maturC; 




Fig-ure 110. — Flowers on the Squash. To the left two staniinate (male 
flowers; to the right two pistillate (female) flowers. 

this matter of pollenization should be closely looked into, and if 
insects are not present the work can be quickly and easily done 
by hand. For this purpose a rather large camel's hair brush is 
used which can be filled at one time Yvilh enough pollen from a 
few male flowsrs to pollenize twenty or more female flowers. 

The seed is oval and flat generally white or yellow, but 
varies greatly in size. There is a common belief among garden- 
ers that vines from old seed do not grow so strong as those 
trom new seed and produce more fruit. This seems to be borne 
Dut by some experiments. 

Cultivation. — The cultivation of the squash and the pumpkin 



SQUASH. 



213 



is much the same as for cucumbers. About six seeds should 
be put in each hill. The hills should be eight feet apart each 
way for the longer growing kinds and five feet apart for the 
bush sorts. The plants should be thinned out after they are 
established so as to allow two plants to each hill. They are 
affected by the same insect pests as the cucumber and the 
same remedies are in order. In addition, however, to these, 
some kinds are affected in the eastern states by a borer which 
works in the stem, and by the squash bug. (See chapter on in- 
sects.) 

The early varieties of the squash are sometimes started in 
hotbeds or cold frames to advance them and thus avoid serious 
injury from the striped beetle. 

Harvesting. — Summer squash are not grown for storing and 
are not desirable for table use except before the skin hardens, 
when they are used entire. Winter squash are excellent for use 
in a green state but are not gathered for storing until the skin 
is hard. They should always be gathered upon the approach of 
frosty weather, as a very little frost injures their keeping quali- 
ties, although the injury may not be apparent when gathered. 
It is a good plan in harvesting them to place them in piles in the 
field, leaving them exposed to the sun during the day and 
covering them with the vines or other material every frosty 
night until they are thoroughly dried and the skins have become 
hard and flinty. In gathering, cut the stem off not over an inch 
from the squash, for it the stem is left on it is liable to be used as 
a handle and be broken off and thus leave a spot that is very 
sure to start to rotting. Squashes should be handled with the 
greatest care if they are to be kept successfully, and each one 
should be placed in the wagon or on the shelf separately; if 
handled roughly they will not keep. They should be carried in a 
spring wagon or on a bed of hay or straw. 

Storing. — Winter squash keep best in- a dry atmosphere and 
at a cool temperature. They will, hovN^ever, keep well in a warm 
or even hot cellar or room, providing it is dry, but will quickly 
rot in a moist atmosphere. They will shrink more in weight in 
a warm than in a cool place. They should be laid on shelves 
one tier deep, and never piled up if it is desired to keep them 



V 



214 VEGETABLE GARD'ENING. 

long. When well hardened without exposure to frost before stor- 
ing and kept dry, many of the winter sorts are easily kept until 
March. 

The quality of squash varies somewhat according to the 
land on which it is grown. Sandy loam is generally believed to 
produce the best flavored dry flesh squash, but the quality also 
varies according to the season. 

Summer Varieties— (Cucurbita pepo.)— Summer Crookneck 




Figure 111.— Varieties of summer squashes. 
Crookneck. Boston Marrow. Scalloped, 

is a summer sort, generally with a crooked neck, that is highly 
esteemed. A form of this with a straight neck is also grown. 

Bush Scalloped. — Yellow and white varieties of this for 
summer use are much grown by market gardeners, differing from 
each other only ir color of the skin. They are round-flat and 
have a scalloped edge. 

Boston Marrow. — Much grown for marketing and very highly 
esteemed for summer and fall use. 

Orange Marrow — A form of the Boston Marrow. 

Fall and Winter Varieties. — (Cucurbita maxima.) — Hub- 
bard. — This is the best known and most largely grown of the 
winter varieties. It varies somewhat in form, is generally dark 
green in color and sometimes marked with red. When well 
grown it has a rough shell of flinty hardness and thick, heavy 
flesh that cooks dry. The qualitv varies much according to the 
quality of the land on which it is grown, sandy loam generally 
producing the best. 



SQUASH. 215 
Marblehead is a variety that resembles the Hubbard in qual- 
ity of flesh, and by many is considered superior. It differs from 
the Hubbard in form and color, is ashy gray and the flesh is 




Fig-ure 112— Hubbard Squash. 

much thinner. It yields less in weight but generally produces 
more squashes per acre. 

Essex Hyb»^id= — Very fine grained, rich, sweet, and a good 
keeper; excellent for autumn and winter. 

Bay State. — A good variety. 

Miscellaneous Varieties.— Winter Crookneck. — One of the 

hardiest, most reliable and best keeping squashes, but in 
quality no better than some of the pumpkins. Very little in 
demand for marketing, but popular in some sections for home 
use. 

Cocoanut, Perfect Gem and Chestnut are varieties produc- 
ing a large number of small squashes of excellent quality and 
are very easily raised. 

PUMPKIN. (Cucurbita pepo.) 
Native of warm climates. — Annual. — Under the name of 
pumpkin are grouped a number of gourds, greatly varying in 
shape, color, size and quality. Some of them are very good for 
cooking purposes, but they are not generally esteemed for table 



216 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



use by those who have become accustomed to the better kinds 
of squashes; some of them are great yielders and are used for 
feeding cattle. They may be grown as recommended for squash 



The variety most generally grown is known as Connecticut 
Field, which is of large size and is used mainly for feeding stock. 
Sugar and Cheese pumpkins are varieties much grown for cook- 
ing purposes. 



Native of the warm parts of Asia. — Annual. — Cultivated from 
a very remote period of antiquity. It resembles the cucumber 
in habit of growth, and, like it and the squash, the different 
sexes of flowers are separate on the same plant and in nature re- 
quire the agency of insects to pollenize them; however, they may 
be pollenized by hand, and the directions for pollenizing cucumber 
flowers apply here. In quite a few cases the flowers of the musk- 
melon are perfect, that is, have both stamens and pistils; but 
it is likely that even in these cases cross-fertilization is neces- 
sary. The seed resembles cucumber seed in size and form. 
The fruit varies in shape but is commonly round or oval. The 
flesh varies in color from nearly white to deep orange. This is 
one of the most healthful and delicious of fruits, and our warm, 
bright summers are especially favorable to its growth. As far 
north as Minneapolis, this fruit is often so plentiful as to glut 
the markets in September. 

Culture. — The culture of muskmelons is practically the same 
as that recommended for cucumbers, and the insect pests are 
also the same. A warm soil is, if anything, more desirable for 
this crop than for cucumbers, and in moist seasons it doe^ 




Figure 113— Cheese Pumpkin. 



or, as is most commonly 
practiced, grown amongst 
the corn, where the seed is 
planted as soon as warm 
weather is assured. The 
seed varies much in size. 
For remarks on its flowers 
and pollination see squash 
with which they are nearly 
identical. 



MUSKMELON. (Cucumis melo.) 



MUSKMELON. 



217 



especially well on very sandy land, providing it has been well 
manured. It is a good plan to pinch off the ends of the vines 
after they have grown several feet for the purpose of forcing out 
the laterals on which the fruit is borne, although this is not 
customary in growing them on a large scale. Late settings of 
fruit may be removed to advantage in September, as they then 
have not time to mature. The fruit is not ripe until the stem 
separates easily from it. Fruit ripened on the vine is of the best 




Figure 114 — Mupkmeloas. 1— California Citron. 2— White Japan. 3— Miller's 
Cream. 4— Extra Earl^-. 

quality, but for shipping purposes it should be picked when still 
green. Almost without exception, melons with finely netted skins 
are of better quality than those with smooth or coarsely netted 
skins. So true is this that buyers often refuse to buy the smooth 
kinds. In order to make the fruit ripen earlier and to avoid the 
attacks of the striped beetle, the plants are often started in pots 
and on sods in hotbeds or frames, as recommended for cucum- 
bers. It is a good plan also to place a piece of glass or board 
under the melons when those of the best quality are desired, 
since this keeps them off the ground, and they ripen more evenly 
in consequence. 

Va.^'ieties. — Melons vary much in size, form, color of skin 
and flesh and in quality. There are many kinds, but only a few 
are referred to here. 

Christiana, or Early Christiana is a popular melon, of extra 
good quality, with salmon colored flesh. 



218 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

Osage, or Miller's Cream. — A large melon having firm 
salmon colored flesh, very productive and highly esteemed for 
the market and home garden. Perhaps, the best shipping sort 
now grown. 

California Citron miiskmelon is a variety especially popular 
In Bome northern markets for home market and for shipping. 

Emerald Gem is a very prolific melon, with small but very 
superior fruit that is valuable for home use. 

WATERMELON. (Citrullis vulgaris.) 
Native of Africa. — Annual. — A vine of the same general 
habit as the muskmelon, but the leaves are deeply lobed, 




Pig-ure 115— Varieties of Watermelons. 1— Iron Clad. 2— Cuban Queen. 3- 
I^ig-ht Ice Rind. -1 — Monte Cristo. 5— Dark Ice Rind. 

and the whoie plant is covered with soft, grayish hairs that 
give it a grayish aspect. The flowers are the same in genera] 
structure as those of the cucumber or muskmelon. The seeds are 



WATERMELON. 



219 



large but vary much in size, color and markings. The fruit 
varies in color of skin from pale j^ellow to deep green and is 
often mottled; the flesh varies from white to pink or yellow. 
Some are tasteless and insipid and others are sugary and re- 
freshing. The fruit often weighs as much as fifty pounds in good 
seasons when grown in favorable locations, even in the extreme 
northern states. 

Culture. — The method of culture is the same as for tbe 
cucumber and musRmelon, with the exception that the vines 
should not be pinched, and they require rather more room in 
which to grow. They should be planted about eight feet apart 
each v/ay. 

Varieties. — There are many kinds of watermelons offered by 
seedsmen, diiffering from one another in many particulars. Sev- 
eral of the most esteemed are the following: 

Dark and Light Icing, or Ice Rind. — The best two varieties 
for general use. Well adapted for home use or marketing. 

Hungarian. — A melon of good quality, adapted for the home 
garden. 

Volga. — An early variety with light colored skin and very 
red flesh. Fruit rather small but of excellent quality and very 
productive. 

Citron, or Preserving Melon. — Resembles watermelon, but the 
flesh is hard and only flt for preserves. There is but a limited 
demand for it. 

CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus.) 

Native of the East Indies. — Annual. — A creeping plant with 
angular, flexible stems, rough to touch and furnished with ten- 
drils. The howers are yellow, in the axils of the leaves, some 
male, others female; the latter flowers are on the ovary, which 
later becomes the cucumber. The plants produce flowers and 
fruit in succession over a long season, and these are naturally 
I-ollen^zed by insects. The seed is long-oval in form and yellow- 
ish-white in color. 

Cultivation. — The land for cucuinbers should be a deep, rich, 
somewhat retentive loam, and yet this vegetable will do very well 
with only moderately favorable conditions. For ordinary use 
and for the home garden, cucumber seed should be planted after 



V 



220 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



the ground is warm, say from the middle to the last of May. 
but it may be planted with good results as late as the middle of 
June. It is quite customary to furrow out the land six leet 
apart one way, mark crcssways of the furrows with a six foot 
marker, and put a shovelful of well rotted manure or compost 
in each intersection. Cover this manure with soil and plant the 
cucumber seed. Of course, when the land is in the best condition, 
it is not necessary to put manure in the hills; in such cases, all 
that is necessary is to mark out both ways and plant at the 
intersections. About ten or a dozen seeds should be put in 
each hill and covered about one inch deep, and the soil packed 
ovei the seeds. As soon as the plants are up, and after each rain, 
they should have the soil loosened around them They shouJd 
also be kept dusted until well established with Paris green, land 
plaster or some other dust, to keep off the striped beetles, which 
are often very troublesome and may destroy the plants when 
they are small unless preventive measures are used. (See 
chapter on insects.) The land should be cultivated both ways 
until the vines prevent it, so that very litle work will have to be 
done by hand. About tnree good plants are enough for each 
hill, and the rest should be removed after the danger from serious 
insect injuries has passed. 

Gathering the Crop. — If for table use or for marketing in a 
green state, the cucumbers are gathered when full grown but still 
green; if for pickles, the cucumbers are gathered as soon as of 
the required size, which is generally when they are about three 
inches long. Some factories put up larger and some smaller 
pickles than this size. To gather them of just the right size 
requires that the w^hole bed be picked over about once in two 
days. This is a matter of much labor and is generally paid for by 
the piece. No cucumbers should be allowed to go to seed if pickles 
or table cucumbers are wanted, for as soon as seed is ripened the 
plants commence to die off, while if constantly gathered when 
green and not allowed to ripen, the plants will continue bearing 
a long time. In the vicinity of pickling factories, cucumbers for 
pickles are often raised in large quantities as a farm crop and 
are contracted for at a specified price per thousand or per hun- 
dred pounds, for the season. For home use or for storing and 



CUCUMBER 22a 

marketing in the winter, the cucumbers are packed in salt or salt 
brine when gathered. Growers generally use about seven pounds 
of salt to a bushel of cucumbers. They may also be packed in dry 
salt in layers, which has the effect of taking the water out of the 
cucumbers, causing them to shrivel up and lie in their own 
juice. When wanted for use they are freshened out in water, 
which causes those that are shriveled to swell up plump; they 
are then put in vinegar. Cucumber pickles are easily kept until 
the following spring in this way, but when kep': later than spring 
they get soft and are not so desirable. Cucumbers v/ill stand 1 
great amount of dry weather w^ithout injury, if frequently cul- 
tivated. 

Starting Cucumbers in cold frames and hotbeds and then 
transplanting them to the open ground when all danger of frost 




Figure 116— Chicag-c Pickling- Cucumber. 

is over is a common practice where they are wanted for early 
use. Under this system the seed is sovm in old strawberry boxes 
tomato cans, flower pots, etc. Square pieces of inverted sod are 
also used for the same purpose, four or five seeds being sown on 
each piece five inches rquare and covered with good soil The 
plants in this latter case root into the sod and are easily moved. 
Starting cucumbers this way has the merit of advancing the 
period of maturity of the plants, and as they are well started 



222 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



when set out there is little danger of attacks of the striped 
beetle, and the fruit is earlier than when sown in the open 
ground. In following out this plan, the seed should not be sown 
before the first of May, or the plants will be too large to move 
well. Before the plants are removed from the frames to the 
open ground, they should be exposed without the sash for several 
days until well hardened off. When these plants are moved to the 
open ground, they should be set rather deeper than they grew in 
the frames. They then are cultivated the same as plants from 
seed sown in the hill. Another way for advancing the cucumber 
season when hotbed sash is used is by planting a hill of them 
very early, in the center of each sash of the hotbed, while the 
rest of each sash may be used for an early crop. The cucumbers 
will not need much room for several weeks, which will give time 
to grow the early crop and get it out of the way of the cucumbers. 
The sashes should be removed when warm weather comes, and 
the vines allowed to grow in the frames all summer. 

Insects. — The cucumber has -8 serious enemy in the striped 
beetle and is also liable to injury from the cut worm. (For reme- 
dies see chapter on insects.) 

Seed. — Cucumber seed is easily raised, and in some loca- 
tions it is a product of some importance. In raising seed it is 
important to save it from the early fruit, which in a small way 
are easily saved; on a large scale, however, the fruits are allowed 
to ripen but not to rot on the ground. When the vines are dead, 
the ripe cucumbers are split open, the pulp scooped out with the 
seed and allowed to ferment for a few days, when it readily sepa- 
rates from the seed. The whole mass is then thrown into a 
sieve with a mesh small enough to not allow the seeds to pass 
through, and the pulp is washed through the sieve, leaving the 
clean seed, which is carefully dried. If the cucumbers are al- 
lowed to get rotten before the seed is taken out, the skins will 
become mixed with the seed, and the seed will be discolored, and 
such seed is very liable to sprout in the cleaning and curing pro- 
cess. 

Varieties. — For general home use and marketing, the White 
Spine is a favorite variety. For pickles the m.ost profitable kinds 
are those producing many small cucumbers, such as the variety 



LETTUCE. 



223 



known as the Boston Pickling. There are many good varieties 
of cucumbers and they are offered under various names. For 
earliest use the Early Russian is perhaps the best, but it is 
small and seedy. 

THE SUNFLOWER FAMILY. (Order Compositae.) 
The sunflower family (order compositae) is the largest group 
of flowering plants, yet it has given us only a very few garden 
vegetables and those are of little importance. Its plants are 
distinguished by what the older botanists termed the "compound 
flower." This consists of several or many flowers in a head, sur- 
rounded by a set of bracts. Stamens as many as the lobes of 
the corolla (generally five), their anthers grown together by their 
edges. Ovary one-celled, inferior, containing a single seed. Be- 
sides the artichoke, lettuce, salsify, endive, and dandelion, whose 
cultural directions are here given, there occur here the tansy, 
sunflower, daisies, corn-flower, ageratum, cineraria, chicory, bur- 
dock, thistle, wild lettuce, compass plant, ragweed, flreweed, 
chrysanthemum, marigold, goldenrod, aster, yarrow, zinnia, dahlia 
and many other well known plants. 

LETTUCE. (Lactuca sativa.) 

Native of India or Central Asia. — Annual. — Flowers yellow, 
on seed stalks two or more feet high; seeds small, flat, white or 
black, but sometimes yellow or reddish brown in color. The 
shape and size of the leaves also vary greatly; sometimes they 
form a head like the cabbage and again only a loose bunch. The 
foliage is generally of some shade of green, but some varieties 
have leaves of a reddish color. 

Cultivation. — Lettuce is largely grown in greenhouses during 
the winter, in hotbeds and cold frames in the early spring 
and outdoors in the late spring and until severe weather in 
autumn. It is a very important crop for the market gardener, 
as there is some demand for it at all seasons of the year and 
a large call lor it in the spring. Some growers making a spe- 
cialty of this crop have it in marketable condition every month 
of the year. In some sections, the plants may be start- 
ed in September and when of good size transplanted to a cold 
frame, where they may be safely wintered over. In the spring 



224 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



they are used for planting in hotbeds and in the open ground, 
In the extreme Northern states, however, although plants fre^ 
quently come through the winter safely when thus protected 
It is not a method to be depended upon. It is customary here 
to raise the plants for spring planting, in greenhouses or early 
hotbeds. Lettuce may be transplanted to the open ground as 




Figure 117 - Black-seeded Simpson Lettuce. (Typical curley sort. ) 

soon as the soil will work easily in the spring, but it should 
be well hardened off before being planted out; it will, however, 
stand quite a severe freeze if properly hardened off, and, as is 
the case with many other crops, the plants may be protected 
with earth on the approach of hard frost, providing it does not 
remain over them more than a day or two. In the open ground, 
lettuce plants should be set out about twelve inches apart each 
way. It is frequently grown between rows of early cabbage, 
cauliflower or other plants where it fills up otherwise unoccupied 
space and comes off the land long before other crops need the 
room it occupies. For late use, the seed is often sown in the 
open ground in drills one foot apart and the plants thinned to the 
same distance apart. It is customary also in the home garden to 
sow the seed and then cut off the young plants as soon as they are 



LETTUCE. 



225 



large enough to use; such lettuce, however, is not nearly so good 
as head lettuce where the center is white, crisp and tender. It 
is a far better plan to thin out the young plants so that they 
stand three or four inches apart in the rows and in cutting con- 




Figure 118 — Head Lettuce. 

tinue the thinning process so that the later plants will form good 
heads. Of course, it is necessary to make successive sowings of 
lettuce in order to have it fit for table use over a long season. 
Like all leaf crops, lettuce needs plenty of rich, easily avail- 
able nitrogenous manure and responds very quickly to small ap- 
plications of nitrate of soda. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties and each year finds 
many additions to the list of those offered by seedsmen. In 
the matter of quality, those forming a head like the cabbage 
have the preference. Varieties that form only a bunch of leaves 
are largely raised by market gardeners to supply the common 
demand, since they are more easily grown and are less liable to 
injury in handling than the heading varieties. Some of the most 
desirable kinds are as follows: 

White Tennis Bail, or Boston iVIarket. — A very popular 
market variety adapted for hotbed and early spring use only. 
It forms a solid head of medium size but quickly goes to seed 
in warm weather. 



V 



226 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Hanson. — Forms large solid heads and is a general favorite; 
excellent for spring or summer use. 

Black-Seeded Simpson. — A popular forcing variety that 
stands well without going to seed and does not form a head but a 
mass of curled leaves. 

Grand Rapids. — A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It re- 
sembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but is a better shipping variety. 

Black-Seeded Tennis Ball. — A popular sort for forcing or 
early garden culture. It forms large, solid heads and is highly 
esteemed. 

Salamander. — A good heading sort for summer use. 

Buttercup.— Bright chrome yellow in color, very beautiful; 
tender and desirable. A popular new sort. 

Insects and Diseases. — There are few insects or diseases that 
seriously affect the lettuce when grown outdoors. In the green- 
house and occasionally in the hotbeds, it is sometimes attacked 
by the aphis and mildew. For remedies for aphis, see chapter 
on insects. 

Mildew frequently injures the lettuce crop when it is grown 
in greenhouses in winter. It is most liable to be caused by over- 
watering and especially by frequent watering in cold or cloudy 
weather, which keeps the leaves wet much of the time. It is a 
good plan to water heavily when the crop is planted and to avoid 
repeating it until the soil is quite dry and tnen water heavily 
again in the morning of a bright day, so that the foliage may dry 
off before night. Sub-irrigation has been used with excellent suc- 
cess for this crop in greenhouses in winter. 

SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. (Tragopogon porrifolius.) 

Native of Europe. — Biennial.— A plant with long fleshy tap- 
root and grass-like leaves. The flower stalks grow three feet 
high; the seed is long, ridged, generally curved and pointed at 
both ends. It is rather difficult to plant with a seed sower be- 
cause of its peculiar form, but when the points are rubbed off it is 
often so planted. 

Culture. — The cultural directions given for the parsnip apply 
to this plant. It is very easily grown and hardy, and generally 
comes through the winter in the extreme northern states without 
injury; it is safer, however, to dig the roots in autumn, and put in 



SALSIFY. 



227 



pits until spring or for use during winter. The root is highly es- 
teemed and has the flavor of oysters; it is used for soups, but may 
be cooked in the same manner as parsnips. 

The best variety is the Mamm.oth Sandwich Island, which is 
far superior to any other. 

ENDIVE. (Cichorium endivia.) 

Native of East India. — Annual. — Endive resembles the dan- 
delion in habit and growth. It is esteemed by some as a de- 




sirable fall and winter salad since 
it has a pleasant bitter taste when 
blanched. It is of very simple 
culture and may be grown in much 
the same manner as lettuce. For 
summer use, sow the seed early in 
the spring; for autumn and winter 
use, sow in July. It is blanched be- 
fore being eaten. This is accom- 
plished by tying the leaves lightly 
together when the plants have 
nearly completed their growth. 
After this treatment, the leaves in 
the center of the plant will have 
become blanched in about three 
weeks. Do not tie the plants too 
rapidly, since the hearts are liable 
to rot soon after blanching, espe- 
cially if the weather is warm. On 
the approach of severe weather, the 
plants may be set in boxes in a cold 
cellar, where they will continue to 
produce nice blanched leaves dur- 
ing the early part of the winter. 

Varieties. — A variety known as 
Green Curled Endive is generally 
grown, but other varieties are of- 



t^ig. 119— Sandwich Island Salsify, fered by seedsmen. 

DANDELION. (Taraxacum officinale.) 
Native of Europe. — Perennial. — The dandelion is a familiar 



228 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 




Fig. 120. — Curled Endive. 



plant to almost every one. It is now of spontaneous growth here 

and is used for greens in its wild 
state; but the cultivated varie- 
ties are quite an improvement on 
the wild plants. The best method 
of growing it is by sowing the 
seed in the spring in drills ten 
inches apart and thinning out the 
plants to three inches apart in 
rows. The seed is somewhat dif- 
ficult to start, and it is a good 
plan to go over each row twice 
with the seed sower, so as to mix 
the seed up with the soil, since 
by this method some of it will be 
sure to be properly covered. It 
is sometimes used in the fall, but 
not generally until spring. It is often forced by covering the bed 
with the hotbed sash or by transplanting to hotbeds or cold 
frames. It is sometimes blanch- 
ed and used as a salad, for which 
purpose it is much like endive. 
While the plant is a perennial, 
yet only one crop should be har- 
vested from each sowing, since 
after the first cutting there are 
many sprouts produced from 
each root so that none of them 
are large enough for good mar- 
ket plants. The plants should 
always be plowed in before they 
ripen seed unless seed is to be 
saved, to prevent its scattering and becoming a nuisance. A va- 
riety called the Improved Thick-Leaved is the most esteemed. 
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. (Helianthus tuberosus.) 
Native of North America. — Perennial. — Stems herbaceous, 
six or more feet high, roots tuberous. Flowers yellow, resem- 
bling those of the common sunflower, but comparatively small. 




Figure 121.^ — Dandelion. 



ARTICHOKE. 



229 



For best results the artichoke requires exceedingly rich soil. It 
can be grown from the seed, although this is seldom attempted, 
but it is customary to grow it by planting the small tubers whole 
or cut the large tubers in the same way as potatoes. They 
should be planted about four inches deep at twelve inch intervals 
in rows three feet apart. They are used chiefly for feeding 
stock and are often harvested by turning hogs into the field. 
They will frequently remain in the land many years even if not 
cultivated. They are easily injured by frost when not covered 
with earth but in the ground they are perfectly hardy. 

GLOBE ARTICHOKE. (Cynara scolymus.) 
Native of Barbary and South Europe. — Perennial. — A large 
thistle-like plant growing two to three feet high, producing large 
flower heads, the scales of which are large and thick, and are 
highly esteemed as a garden vegetable in England and Southern 
Europe. It has, however, never become popular in this country 
and is rarely grown. In Southern Europe it is grown by divisions 
and there are many varieties. It may also be grown from seed, 
but seedlings are generally very much inlerior to the best named 
sorts. The roots must be very carefully protected in order to 
bring them through our winters. 

GARDEN HERBS. 

Under this head are grouped a number of sweet culinary and 
medicinal plants that are cultivated to some extent in gardens. 
They are generally easily grown in mellow, open soil. Those 
having foliage that is esteemed for its aroma should generally 
be cut on a dry day, just as they reach full flowering stage, and 
should be dried quickly in the shade. As a rule, herbs should be 
cut before being frozen, though freezing does not always injure 
them. When dry they should be kept in dry air-tight boxes or 
vessels. The demand is very limited for most of them. Only a 
few of the most common kinds are referred to here. In the ex- 
treme northern states, many of the perennial kinds will kill out 
in severe winters unless protected. 

THE MINT FAMILY. (Order Labiatae.) 
The Mint Family includes little other than herbs (with few 
exceptions) which have aromatic herbage, square stems, op- 



230 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 

posite simple leaves, 2-lipped corolla and a deeply 4-parted ovary 
which separates into the same number of seeds. Besides balm 



^^^^ SUHMER 

SAGE SAVORY DILL CARAWAY FENNEL LAVENDER 




BORAGE THYME ^U£ AN!S£ CORIANDER s'AvOry 



Fig-ure 122— Characteristic portions of g-arden herbs. 

catnip, lavender, peppermint, sage, sweet basil, sweet marjoram, 
spearmint, summer savory, thyme, and winter savory whose 
cultural directions are here given, this order includes garden 
coleus, hyssop, flowering sage or salvia, and horse mint. The 
plants of this group are mostly grown for their aromatic herb- 
age. 

Balm. — (Melissa officinalis.) — A native of the south of Eu- 
rope. — Perennial. — A plant grov/ing about eighteen inches high 
having aromatic herbage. The seed is very small. Sow in spring 
where the plants are to remain. 

Catnip. — (Nepeta cataria.) — Native of Europe. — Perennial — 
Often a common weed around buildings and along roadsides here. 
It is used in a small way for seasoning. Easily grown from seed 
or by division. 



THE MINT FAMILY. 



231 



Lavender. — (Lavendula spica.) — Native of southern Europe. — 
Perennial. — A low undershrub grown chiefly for its flowers 
which are used in the manufacture of perfumery. Generally in- 
creased by dividing the old roots. It delights in a fine, ricn, 
rather calcareous soil. 

Peppermint. — (Mentha piperita.) — Native of northern Europe. 
— Perennial. — Propagated by divisions of the stems; occasionally 
a roadside weed in moist places. It is cultivated in the same 
way as spearmint. Used mostly for its essential oil which is ob- 
tained by distillation. The raising of this plant forms a con- 
siderable industry in a few locations in the northern states. 

Sage. — (Salvia officinalis.) — Native of southern Europe. — Per- 
ennial. — Plants forming broad tufts about sixteen inches high; 
flowers in heads of three or four in terminal clusters, usually 
bluish white but sometimes white or pink. The seeds are round 
and of medium size. Plants come readily from seed, which should 

be sown in early spring. It is cus- 
tomary in a small way to bow the 
seed outdoors and allow the plants 
to remain w^here they grow for sev- 
eral years. Where it is grown on a 
large scale, however, the plants are 
generally put out as a second 
crop, following early peas or cab- 
bage. There is some uncertainty 
about its coming through very se- 
vere winters in the northern states, 
but it generally does so in good 
shape; it is more reliable if banked 
with earth or covered with litter in 
winter. Broad-leaved sage is aL 

Fig. 123-Praiich of sage plant. improved kind. 

Sweet Basil. — (Ocymum basilicum.) — Native of India. — An- 
nual. — Stem about one foot high; very branching. The leaves 

and other green parts have an agreeable aromatic odor and are 
used in seasoning. Sow indoors in March or April and trans- 
plant as soon as t^e weather is settled. It may also be sown in 
the open ground early in the spring. 




232 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



Sweet Marjoram. — (Origanum marjorana.) — Native of Asia.— 
Perennial but generally grows as an annual. — The leaves and 
other green parts are used for seasoning. The seeds are very 
small. Sow early in spring in any good garden soil. 

Mint or Spearmint. — (Mentha viridis.) — Native of Europe. — 
Perennial. — A plant with vigorous creeping root stock, very 
hardy and sometimes a troublesome weed in moist soil. It is 
grown by planting the roots in the spring. There is a small de- 
mand for this plant in winter as well as in summer, which is met 
by a greenhouse supply. The leaves and young shoots are used 
for seasoning. 

Summer Savory. — (Satureia hortensis.) — Native of southern 
Europe. — Annual. — A small plant eight or ten inches high. The 
seed, which is very small, should be sown the latter part of April 
or in May. The leaves and young shoots are used for flavoring. 

Thyme. — (Thymus vulgaris.)— Native of southern Europe.— 
Perennial. — ^A small plant with small aromatic leaves and stems- 
It starts easily if sown in early spring. It is customary to sow 
the seed where the plants are to remain but it may be trans- 
planted. It is in demand for flavoring and is generally hardy at 
the north. Eroad-leaved thyme is the only variety worth grow- 
ing. 

Winter Savory. — (Satureia montana.) — Native of southern 
Europe. — Perennial. — Stems woody, at least near the base; twelve 
to sixteen inches high. Used for the same purposes as Summer 
Savory. Not hardy here unless well protected. 

PARSiNilP FAMILY. (Order Umbelliferae.) 
For characteristics see page 172. 

Anise. — (Pimpinella anisum). — A native of Asia Minor. — An- 
nual. — Attains a height of sixteen inches. The seeds are aromatic 
and used in medicine and confections. Sow in April or May 
where the plants are to remain during the season. 

Caraway. — (Carum carui.) — Native of Europe.— Biennial. — 
Stem straight; two or three feet high. The seeds resemble those 
of carrots and are esteemed tor flavoring. It should be sown in 
May in drills and does not produce seed until the following sea- 
son; very hardy and of the easiest culture. 



PARSNIP FAMILY. 



233 



Coriander. — (Coriandrum sativum.) — Native of southern Eu- 
rope. — Annual. — Two to two and one-half feet high. Stem leaves 
much divided. Grown from the seed which should be sown in 
the spring. The seed is used for flavoring purposes; the foliage 
exhales a very rank odor. 

Dill. — (Anethum graveolens.) — Native of southern Europe. — 
Annual. — Height, from two to two and a half feet. It is of the 
easiest culture. The seed is much used as flavoring for pickles 
of various kinds. It should be sown in the spring in rows about 
one foot apart and cultivated the same as for carrots. Where the 
seed ripens, an abundance of plants generally spring up the fol- 
lowing year. Probably botanically the same as fennel but the 
latter is more in use in the green stage for its foliage. 

BORAGE FAMILY. (Order Boraginaceae.) 
Borage. — (Borage ofiicinalis.) — Native of Europe and North 
Africa. — Annual. — Twelve to eighteen inches high. Used in the 
manufacture of cordials. Flowers blue, pretty. Of the easiest 
culture, growing freely from spring sown seeds. 

RUE FAMILY. (Order Rutaceae.) 
Common Rue. — (Ruta graveoleus.) — A bushy herb, woody, or 
almost shrubby at its base. The leaves are very bitter and some- 
times used in seasoning. Grown from seed or by division of the 
roots. 



234 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



TABLE I.— WEIGHT OF ONE QUART OF SEEDS AND NUMEETi OF 
SEEDS IX ONE OUNCE. 



KIND OF SEED. 



Weight of i 
Quart of 
Seed in 
Ounces. 



Number of 

Seeds in 
One Ounce. 



Asparagus, 

Balm, 

Basil, 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole, or Kale 

Broscoli 

Cabbage, 

Caraway 

Carrot, with spines 

** without spines 

Catmirt 

Cauliflower, 

Celery 

Chicory, 

Cress, American, 

" common garden 

*• water, 

Cucumber, common 

*' prickly fruited gherkin, 

Dandelion, 

Dill, 



Egg Plant, 

Endive 

Kohlrabi, 

Leek, 

Lettuce 

Maize, or Indian Com,.. 

Marjoram, sweet 

** winter, 

Martjmia 

Muskmelon, 

Okra 

Onion, 

Pea, 

'* gray or field, 

Parsnip, 

Pepper 

Pumpkin, 

Radish 

Rampion, 

Rhubarb 

Sage 

Salsify 

Savory, summer 

*' winter 

Spinach, prickly-seeded.. 
*' round-seeded 

New Zealand 

Squash, Hubbard 

Bush Scalloped . 

Strawberry Tomato 

Thyme 

Tomato 

Turnip 

^aKrmclon 



32 
20 
20 
24 to 33 
10 
25 
25 
25 
15 
9 
13 
28 
25 
17 
14. 
20 
28 
202/3 
18 
20 

11 
18 
12 

25 
20 

I5I3 
23 
20 
24 

13 
22 
18 

25 to 28 V2 
21 to 28 V2 



16 
. 9 
25 
28V2 
3 to 41/2 
19V2 

8 
18 
15 

13V2 
142/3 

8 
14 
15^2 
23 
24 
11 
24 
16H 



1,400 
56,600 
22,665 
200 to 225 
1.400 
8,500 
10.525 
8,500 
9,915 
19,835 
26,915 
3.400 
10.525 
70,835 
19.830 
16,915 
12.715 
113,335 
1.103 
3.680 
34,000 to 42.500 
25.500 
6.520 
18.000 
8.500 
11.335 
22.665 
113 to 140 
113.355 
340.000 
565 
1.560 
425 to 510 
7,080 
56 to 14.2 
142 to 225 
6,605 
4,205 
85 

700,835 
3.400 
:i ,415 
7,080 
2.835 
42,500 
70,835 
2,550 
3,135 
280 to 340 
93 
280 
28,335 
170,000 
8,500 to 11.335 
12,715 
113 to 150 



TABLES. 



235 



TABLE II.— LONGEVITY OF GAEDEN SEED WHEN PROrERLY 
CURED AND STORED. 



KIND OF SEED. 



Average 
Years. 



KIND OF SEED. 



Average 
Y'ears. 



Balm 

Basil 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole 

Cabbage 

Caraway 

Carrot 

Catmint 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Cress, American 

** Common Garden.. 

** Water 



Cucumber common 

Prickly-fruited 
Gherkin 



Dandelion 

Dill 

Egg-Plant 

Endive 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lettnce, common... 

Maize, or Indian Corn.... 

Marjoram, Swert 

*• Winte.' 



4 

8 
3 
6 
5 
5 
3 

[• or 5 

6 

5 

8 

8 

3 

5 

5 
10 

6 

2 

3 

6 
10 

5 

3 

5 

2 

3 
5 



i Martynia 1 or 2 



Muskmelon 

Mustard, white or salad 

Okra 

Onion 

Parsnip 

Parsley 

Pea. Garden or field 

Pepper 



Pumpkin 4 or 5 



Radish 

Rampion 

Rhubarb 

Rosemary 

Rue 

Sage 

Salsify 

Savory,summcror wint'r 

Spinach, all kinds, 

Squash, Hubbard 

*' Bush scalloped.. 

Strawbery Tomato 

Thyme 

Tomato 
Turnip 
^Vater melon 




6 
6 
8 
3 
4 
5 
6 



236 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



TABLE III.— AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED FOR ONE ACRE OR FOR A 
CERTAIN NUMBER OF HILLS OR FEET OF DRILL. 



Artichoke (Jerusalem), 3 bushels of tubers per acre. 
Asparagus, 1 oz. to 60 ft. of drill; 4 to 5 lbs. per acre. 
Beans (dwarf), 2 bu. to the acre in drills; 1 pint to 50 ft. of drill. 

(pole), ] qt to 150 hills; 10 to 12 qts. per acre. 
Beets, 1 oz. to 50 ft. of drill, 5 lbs. to the acre in drills. 

Cabbage, 1 oz. to 1500 plants, % lb. of seed in beds to transplant upon an acre. 

Carrot, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill, 3 to 4 lbs. per acre in drills. 

Cauliflower, 1 oz. for about 1000 plants. 

Celery, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; ^ lb. to the acre. 

Corn Salad or Fetticus, 1 oz. to 20 square ft. 

Corn— Sweet, 1 qt. to 200 hills; 8 to 10 qts. to the acre in hills. 

Cress, 1 oz. to 16 square ft. 

Cucumber, 1 oz. to 50 hills; 2 lbs. to the acre in hills. 
Egg Plant, 1 oz. for 1000 plants. 

Kale or Sprouts, 1 oz. to 150 feet of drill; 3 to 4 lbs. per acre. 
Kohl Rabi, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; 3 to 4 lbs. per acre. 
Leek, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill. 

Lettuce, 1 oz. to 150 ft. of drill, or for 1000 plants. 
Martynia, 1 oz. to 100 hills. 

Melons (Musk) 1 oz. to about 60 hills: 2 to 3 lbs. to the acre. 

" (VVater) 1 oz. to 30 hills; 4 to 5 lbs. per acre. 
Okra or Gumbo, 1 oz. to 100 hills; 20 lbs. to the acre. 
Onions, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill: 4 to 5 lbs. to the acre. 
Parsley, 1 oz. to 150 ft. of drill. 

Parsnip. 1 oz. to 200 ft. of drill; 5 to 6 lbs. per acre in drills. 
Peas, 1 qt. to 100 ft. of drill; 2 bu. to an acre in drills. 
Pepper, 1 oz. to 1000 plants. 

Potatoes, 8 to 12 bu. cut tubers to the acre, according- to method of planting. 

Pumpkins, 1 oz. to 30 to 50 hills: 3 to 4 lbs, per acre. 

Radishes, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre in drills. 

Sage, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre. 

Salsify, 1 oz. to 70 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre. 

Spinach, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 10 lbs. to the acre in drills. 

Squash (Bush) 1 oz. to 50 hills; 5 to 6 lbs. to the acre. 

" (Marrow) 1 oz. to 20 hills; 3 to 4 lbs. to the acre. 
Tomato, 1 oz. to 1500 plants: K lb. foi transplanting to an acre. 
Turnip, 1 oz. to 150 ft. of drill; 2 lbs. to the acre in drills. 



TABLE IV.— AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEEDS TO 
(TERMINATE UNDER GOOD CONDITIONS. 



KIND OF SEED. 



No. Days. j 



KIND OF SEED. 



No. Days. 



Bean, 

Beet 

Cabbage,.... 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery, 

C crn 

Cucumber,.. 
Endive, 



5 to 10 
7 to 10 
5 to 10 

12 to IS 
5 to 10 

10 to 20 

5 to 8 

6 to 10 
5 to 10 



Lettuce.. 

Onion 

Pea 

Parsnip,. 
Pepper,.. 
Radish,.. 
Salsify,.., 
Tomato, 
Turnip... 



TABLES. 



237 



TABLE v.— STANDARDS OF PURITY AND GERMINATION 
OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. 
The United States Department of Agriculture has adopted 
the following standards as the base for its decisions as to the 
value of seeds: 

The seeds must be true to name, and practically free from 
smut, bunt, ergot, insects or their eggs or larvae, and the seeds 
of dodder (Cuscuta spp.), wild mustard (Brassica spp.), wild flax 
(Camelina spp.), Russian thistle (Salsola kali tragus), Canada 
thistle (Carduus arvensis), cockle (Agrostemma githago), chess 
(Bromus secalinus) , quack grass (Agropyron repens), penny cress 
(Thlaspi arvense), wild oats (Avena fatua), and the bulblets of 
wild onion (Allium vineale). It must not contain more than one 
per cent of other weed seeds, and should come up to the percent- 
ages of purity 1 and germination given in the following table: 



KIND OF SEED. Purity 



Alfalfa 

Asparag-us 

Barley 

Beans 

Beet 

Blue grass, Canadian. 
Blue g"rass, Kentuckv 

Brome, awnless '. 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, Crimson 

Clover, red 

Clover, white 

Collard 

Corn, field 

Corn, sweet 

Cotton 

Cowpea 

Cucumber 

Egg Plant 

Fescue, meadow... . 

Lettuce 

Kafir corn 

Melon, musk 



Purity. 


Germi- 
nation. 


per 
cent."^ 


per cent. 


98 


85-90 


99 


80-85 


99 


90-95 


99 


90-95 


99 


140-150! 


90 


45-50 


90 


45-50 


90 


75-80 


99 


90-95 


99 


90-95 


95 


80-85 


99 


80-85 


98 


60-65 


95 


75-80 


98 


85-90 


98 


85-90 


95 


75-80 


99 


90-95 


99 


90-95 


99 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


99 


75-80 


95 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


98 


85-90 


99 


85-90 



KIND OF SEED 



Melon, water 

Mi] let, common (C//a^- 

tQchloat itahca) 

Millet, hog" {PanicH7n 

mih'aceum) 

Millet, pearl 

Oats 

Okra 

Onion 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peas 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Rape 

Rye 

Salsify 

Sorg-hum 

Spinach 

Squash 

Timothy 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Tobacco 

Vetch, hairy .. 

Vetch, kidney 

Wheat 



Purity. 


Germi- 
nation. 


per 


per 


cetit. 


cent. 


99 


85-90 


98 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


99 


85-90 


99 


90-95 


99 


80-85 


99 


80-85 


99 


70-75 


95 


70-75 


99 


90-95 


99 


85-90 


99 


90-95 


99 


90-95 


99 


90-95 


98 


75-80 


98 


85-90 


99 


80-85 


99 


85-90 


98 


85-90 


98 


85-90 


99 


90-95 


98 


75-80 


98 


70-75 


95 


85-90 


99 


90-95 



''Impurity allowed refers to inert matter and one per cent (only) of weed seeds 

other than those practically prohibited, as above noted. 
fEach beet fruit, or "ball," is likely to contain from 2 to 7 seeds. One hundred 

balls shou ld yield 150 sprouts. 

1 This means purity of grain, not purity of stock. 



XEG^TTABIJE GAKDENING. 



TABLE VL-QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A 
GIVEN NUMBER OF IT ILLS: 

Corn 1 qt. to 200 hills 

Cucumbeis 1 oz. to 125 " 

Musk melon 1 oz. to 60 

Pole Beans. Limas 1 qt. to 100 

Pole Beans. AVax 1 qt. to 150 

Pumpkin 1 oz. to 50 

Squash 1 oz. to 50 

Watermelon 1 oz. to 30 



TABLE YIL— QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A 
GIVEN LENGTH OF DRILL: 



Asparagus 1 oz. 50 feet of drill 

Beet 1 oz. 50 " 

Beans, Dwarf 1 qt. ICO *' 

Carrot 1 oz. 100 

Endive = 1 oz. 100 

Okra 1 oz. 40 

Onion 1 oz. 100 " 

Onion sets 1 qt. 50 

Parsley 1 oz. 125 

Parsnips 1 oz. 200 " 

Peas 1 qt. 75 ** 

Radishes 1 oz. 100 ** 

Salsify 1 oz. 70 

Spinach J oz. 100 

Turnip 1 :)z. 150 ** 



MONTHLY CALENDAR. 



Under this head some of the principal operations of the year 
in the more northern states are referred to, but these can he re- 
garded only as suggestive, since individual conditions as well as 
the weather vary from year to year. The point should be borne 
in mind that it is of the utmost importance, and for the greatest 
profit, to have all garden work done at the proper time; and to 
do this considerable planning and studying will be necessary in 
laying out each day's work, as well as the work of the season, so 
as to make the most of the opportunities offered by weather and 
season. 

January. — The outdoor work is generally quite at a stand- 
still this month, except that manure may be drawn from the 
stable to the fields needing it, where it may be piled and forked 
over. Plan out the work of the season, aiming to have the 
ground and the time of your help occupied all the time. In do- 
ing this it is generally best to plan to raise those crops that will 
not require a large amount of work at the same season, but 
rather those that will give a succession of work. Market any 
celery, squash or other vegetables for which there is a demand. 

Send for seed catalogues of leading dealers. Decide what 
you are going to want. Test the quality of the seeds you have 
on hand and get your new stock of seed early. Test the seeds 
received for planting. 

February. — The work of this month differs but little from 
that of January, but, in addition, the following may be men- 
tioned: During the latter part of the month prepare manure 
for early hotbeds to be started the first of March. Inspect tools, 
wagons, harness, boxes and crates for marketing and hotbed 
sash, and get them into shape for the busy season. In the green- 
house, cabbage and cauliflower plants may be started; and as 



240 



MONTHLY CALENDAR. 



soon as of transplanting size they should be removed to cold 
frames, where they should remain until the ground is ready for 
planting out. 

March. — Make up hotbeds and sow in them tomatoes, pep- 
pers, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, cress, onions for transplanting, 
carrots, beets, celery, etc. In the latter part of the month 
cold frames may be used for the hardy vegetables. 

If the ground is fit to work, onion sets may be planted and 
spinach, hardy peas, and other plants which are generally not 
sown until April may be sown at this time. Harden off the 
early cabbage and cauliflower plants. 

April. — The hotbeds and cold frames should be in constant 
use. Plantations of asparagus and rhubarb may be made during 
this and the following month. Plant onion sets. 

Sow hardy (smooth) peas, lettuce, celery, radishes, cabbage, 
cauliflower, turnips, onions and spinach, and plant early pota- 
toes as soon as the land is fit to be worked. By the end of the 
month, wrinkled peas, salsify and parsnips may be sown. See 
that tomatoes sown last month are transplanted into beds or 
boxes so as to have plenty of room. Transplant cabbage plants 
for the early crop, putting them in deep enough to completely 
cover the stems. 

In the latter part of the month, ail the early planted crops 
may need cultivating and some of them thinning though but lit- 
tle of this is generally necessary until May. Radishes, lettuce, 
spinach and onions from sets and from seed sown in hotbeds in 
March should be fit to eat or to market. 

Haul out manure and plow land for planting next month. 
Transplant onion plants from the hotbeds to open ground. 

May is the month when the larger part of the vegetables are 
planted. 

By the middle of the month it is often safe to plant the more 
tender vegetables, sucn as cucumbers, squash, melons and beans, 
in the open ground, although nothing is gainea by so doing if 
the ground is cold, waen it would be better to wait until ten 
days later. Corn is frequently planted by the middle of the 
month, and in early seasons it is a good plan to venture a little 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 241 

of some very early kind during the first week of May. Plant po- 
tatoes for general crops. 

All the early planted crops need cultivating frequently, and 
those in drills need to be thinned. 

Plantings for succession may be made of all vegetable seeds 
and sets put in last month. 

Sow cabbage for winter use. 

Lettuce, radishes, beets, spinach, asparagus, rhubarb and 
bunch onions should now be large enough for use. 

Harden off tomato plants and set them out the first part of 
next month. 

June. — Set out tomatoes, celery for early use, peppers, egg 
plant, late cabbage and cauliflower plants and sow winter beets. 

Plant cucumbers for pickles and beans for main crop. Plant 
Lima beans the early part of the month. Market the same vege- 
tables as last month and in addition early peas and, perhaps, 
early cabbage. 

Weeding commences in earnest this month and should be- 
gin early, since if neglected it may be cheaper to plow up the 
whole crop rather than weed it out. 

Keep the soil well stirred with the cultivator. 

Sow rutabaga turnips. 

Stop cutting asparagus by the twentieth of the month. Clean 
up the bed, manure and plow it. 

July. — Plant celery for main and late crop. 

Sow string beans, winter radish and rutabaga turnips. 

Early potatoes, string beans, cabbage, summer squashes, cu- 
cumbers, green corn, onions from sets and cauliflowers are now 
of edible size in addition to those vegetables nearing maturity 
last month. 

Continued cultivation is necessary to protect from drought 
and to keep plants growing. 

August.— Sow string beans and flat early turnips, spinach for 
spring use, winter radishes and early peas. 

The late crops are now maturing, and we have tomatoes, 
squashes, the better kinds of sweet corn and egg-plant, onions 
from early sown seed, and those transplanted are now dry and 



242 



MONTHLY CALENDAR. 



marketable. Lima beans will be ready for use the latter part 
of the month. 

Keep weeds from going to seed. 

Sow lettuce for growing in hotbeds or cold frames for 
Thanksgiving. 

September. — The cool nights of this month are especially 
favorable to such crops as celery, cabbage and cauliflower, and 
they should be carefully cultivated. 

Melons, winter squash and celery are now marketable. 

Handle celery; i. e., partially earth up around it. 

First frosts may new be expected by the fifteenth of the 
month, and the half-ripened tomatoes should be picked and al- 
lowed to ripen in some shady place. Winter squash should be 
gathered before it is at all injured by frost. 

Dig potatoes. 

Transplant lettuce to hotbeds or cold frames. Plant out 
hardy perennial onions for bunching in the early spring. 

October. — Winter celery should be banked up to protect it 
from severe frosts, and on severe nights it should be covered 
with straw or hay for protection. It should all be stored away 
by the end of the month unless plenty of protection is provided 
in the shape of straw, in which case it is safe to leave It out un- 
til the 10th of November. Such crops will not stand with im- 
munity as much frost in the western states as in the eastern 
states. Pull and store cabbage, dig beets, carrots, parsnips, sal- 
sify and potatoes and store in pits or put at once into the cellar. 
Some parsnips and salsify may be left on high land to be dug in 
the spring. Plant out rhubarb roots. 

Attend to fall plowing and leave in ridges any very heavy 
land that is needed for early spring use. 

November. — In the more northern states this month generally 
closes up the work of the season. All the crops should be gath- 
ered in the early part of the month. 

Clean up the garden, frames and hotbeds and get them 
ready for spring work. 

The lettuce sown in August and transplanted to hotbeds or 
cold frames should be flt to market this month. 

Market all the vegetables on hand that will bring a fair 



VEGETABLE GARDENING. 



243 



price, unless wanted for some special purpose or at an assured 
price. 

Cover winter spinach and hardy onion sets with hay as soon 
as the ground begins to freeze hard at night, to prevent freezing 
and thawing. 

December. — Clean up the garden and continue the marketing 
of vegetables if it is not already attended to. 

Carefully study the season's work, note the profits or losses 
on the last crop, and what has been learned that will be useful 
another year. 

At Odd Times the following may be attended to: — Gather 
manure, make crates and boxes for marketing fruits, vegetables 
and plants, repair tools, wagons, harnesses, sashes, hotbeds and 
odd frames. Clean up! 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 

1. How many vegetables be classified and name five in each class. 

2. What is meant by frost tender? Frost hardy? 

3. Discuss the cultivation of mushrooms. 

4. Of what country is corn a native and into what four classes 
may the varieties be grouped? 

5. Discuss the cultivation of corn. 

6. Name five varieties each of early and late maturing sweet corn. 

7. How may sweet corn be cured and preserved ? 

8. What is corn smut? 

9. What is asparagus and of what country is it a native? 

10. How is asparagus propagated and cultivated? 

11. How should asparagus be cut and marketed? 

12. When and how should the asparagus bed be manured? 

13. How may asparagus be forced for early market? 

14. Of what" countrv are onions native and how are they propa- 
gated? 

15. How should the land b.e prepared for onion raising? 

16. Discuss the sowing of onion seed. 
] 7. How should onions be cultivated ? 
18. What are "'scallious" onion "sets?"' 

10. What are the methods of keeping onions over winter? 

20. AVhat are the advantages of planting onion sets? 

21. How are they cultivated and gathered? 

22. Discuss the transplanting of onions. 

23. Name two varieties grown from seed, two for sets, two for 
transplanting. 



244 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 



24. What are "shallots," "Egyptian onions," 'top" onions? 

25. How is onion seed obtained? 

26. What are leeks, garlic chives and how are they cultivated and 
propagated ? 

27. How is rhubarb propagated? 

28. What cultivation does rhubarb need? 

29. What is the method used for forcing rhubarb? 

30. How are beets propagated and cultivated? 

31. Describe a beet seed. 

32. How should they be harvested and stored over winter? 

33. How does scab effect beets and what precautions should be ta- 
ken against it? 

34. What are stock beets? Sugar beets? Leaf beets? 

35. What is spinach and how cultivated ? 

36. Of what countries is cabbage native and into what three groups 
is it divided? 

37. What varieties have sprung from the original species of 
cabbage ? 

38. What soil is best for growing cabbages? 

39. How should cabbage crops be manured? 

40. Discuss cabbage raising for early crops. 

41. How are the x^lants set out and cultivated? 

42. What soil is best for late cabbage crops? 

43. What are the advantages and disadvantages of growing cab- 
bages for late crops? 

44. When are cabbages transplanted and how are they set out? 

45. How are cabbages sown in the hill cultivated? 

46. How are cabbages harvested? 

47. What are the methods of storing cabbage? 

48. How is cabbage seed obtained? 

49. Name two desirable early varieties and two late varieties. 

50. What diseases and insects affect cabbage? 

51. How does club-root affect cabbages and what is the remedy 
for it? 

52. What is black rot and how does it affect cabbage plants? 

53. Give five means of preventing it. 

54. How is pauerkraut made? 

55. What are Brussels sprouts? 

56. What is cauliflower and how is it cultivated? 

57. What is kale-kohl rabi and how is it cultivated? 

58. Of what countries are turnips native? 

59. When and in what kind of soil should turnip seed be sown? 

60. How are rutabagas cultivated and stored? 

61. How is horse radish propagated and cultivated? 

62. Describe watercress and how it is cultivated. 

63. How are winter radishes grown and stored ? 

64. What insects affect radishes and what are remedies? 

65. Name five good varieties. 

66. What are the characteristics of the clover family and what are 
some of its species? 

67. Into what two classes are beans divided and give character- 
istics of each? 

68. How are bush beans cultivated? 
61). How are beans harvested? 

70. Name five good varieties of fall beans. 

71. How are pole beans cultivated? 

72. What is the result of transplanting beans? 

73. What is a good way of preserving beans? 

74. How prevent diseases and insects from injuring beans? 

75. Into what three classes are peas divided and in what ways are 
they different? 

70. IIow are neas cultivated? 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 



245 



77. Name Ave good yarieties of peas. 

78. What is okra and how is it cultivated? 

79. What are the characteristics of the parsnip family? 
80! How are parsnips cultivated? 

81. How are parsnips marketed? 

82. What is parsley and how is it cultivated? 

83. Discuss the cultivation of carrots. 

84. How are they gathered and stored? 

85. How is carrot seed gathered ? 

86. What kind of soil is necessary for a good celery crop? 

87. How should celery be planted to obtain an early crop? 

88. How should celery be planted to obtain a late crop? 

89. How is celery cultivated? 

90. How are the plants transplanted ? 

91. How are celery and onions planted out together? 

92. What is meant by '•handling" celery? 

93. AVhat is the process of bleaching or banking? 

04. How is celery bleached with boards and why not as profitable 
as banking with soil? 

95. What is a convenient way of planting celery for easy cultiva- 
tion and weeding? 

96. When and how should celery be dag? 

97. Discuss a good method of storing celery ? 

98. How long does it take celery to bleach in the field and in the 
cellar ? 

99. How is celery seed raised? 

lUO. What diseases are most common in affecting celery? 

101. How are they treated? 

102. Name five good varieties of celery. 

103. What is celeriac and how is it cultivated? 

104. To what family does the sweet potato belong? 

105. How is the sweet potato cultivated? 

106. What plants belong to the potato family and what are their 
general characteristics? 

107. What colors of skin and flesh, and what forms do we find 
in potatoes? 

108. How is the potato propagated? 

109. When and how was the modern potato originated? 

110. What kind of soil is best for potatoes? 

111. How should such land be manured ? 

112. What are "sets"' and what are the qualities of a good "set?" 

113. How are potatoes planted and what kind should ^be selected 
for seed? 

114. How are potatoes treated for early planting? 

115. How is the main crop of potatoes cultivated? 

116. Discuss digging and storing of potatoes. 

117. What is the average per acre of marketable potatoes in the 
northern states? What are the biggest yields known? 

118. Name five good varieties of potatoes. 

119. Discuss the propagation of potatoes. 

120. What insects and diseases are injurious to the potato? 

121. How and when does "scab" aft>ct potatoes? 

122. What is the best treatment for early potatoes? 

123. How does potato blight affect potatoes? 

124. What is Bordeaux mixture and how is it applied? 

125. What is internal brown rot ? 

126. How are egg plants cultivated? 

127. When should tomato seed be sown and transplanted? 

128. What kind of soil is best for tomato growing? 

129. How should tomato plants be pruned and trained? 

130. How may the tomato season be prolonged after frosts conip 
in ontiinan 



246 



QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 



131. How should tomatoes be selected to save for seed? 

132. Name Ave good varieties of tomatoes. 

133. What is tomato rot and the best remedies for it? 

134. What are ground cherries and how cultivated? 

135. What are the characteristics of the peppers and for what 
are they used? 

136. What is Martynia and how is it cultivated? 

137. What are the general characteristics of the gourd family? 

138. How are the flowers pollenized? 

139. How are squashes cultivated? 

140. Discuss harvesting and storing of squashes. 

141. Name three good summer varieties and three good winter 
varieties. 

142. What are pumpkins? 

143. What are the general characteristics of the muskmelon and 
how are they cultivated? 

144. How do the different varieties vary? 

145. What is difference between muskmelon and a watermelon? 

146. Name three good varieties of watermelon. 

147. Of what country is the cucumber a native? 

148. How is it cultivated? 

149. What soil is best for raising cucumbers? 

150. How should they be gathered when to be used for pickles? 

151. How should they be gathered for home use? 

152. How may they be stored for winter? 

153. How are cucumbers and melons started for early crops? 

154. How are cucumbers cultivated? 

155. What insects injure cucumbers and melons? 

156. How are cucumbers gathered for seed? 

157. Name one good variety for home use and one for pickling. 

158. What are some of the plants that belong to the sunflower 
family? 

159. How is lettuce cultivated? 

160. Name three good varieties for spring use and three for 
summer. 

161. How does mildew affect lettuce and how may it be prevented? 

162. What is salsify and how is it cultivated? 

163. How is endive cultivated? 

164. How are dandelions planted and cultivated? 

165. How is the Jerusalem artichoke cultivated and for what is 
it used? 

166. What is the globe artichoke? 

167. What soil is best for garden lierbs? 

168. How are they gathered and stored? 

169. What are the characteristics of the mint family? 

170. What is balm, catnip, lavender, peppermint, and how are 
ihey propagated and cultivated? 

171. What is sage and how is it grown, harvested and stored? 

172. What is sweet basil, sweet majoram and mint, and how are 
iliey cultivated? 

173. ^^ hat is summer savory, thyme, winter savory? 

174. What is anise, caraway, coriander, dill and how are they 
cultivated ? 

175. What is borage and common rue and for what are they used? 



INDEX. 



Page 

Acre inch of water 10 

Anise 232 

Artichoke, Globe 229 

Artichoke, Jerusalem 228 

Ash, per cent in vegetables. 15 

Asparagus 114 

bunching 119 

cultivation HT 

cutting 118 

forcing 120 

manuring 119 

planting ...117 

propag:ation 115 

varieties 120 

Balm 128 

Beans 164 

bush 165 

diseases , 168 

harvesting 165 

insects » 168 

pole 164 

transpanting 167 

preserving in salt 167 

varieties 164 

Beet 132 

diseases 137 

forcing 139 

harvesting 139 

keeping ....139 

Swiss chard 141 

stock 140 

varieties 139 

sugar 140 

Borraginaceae 233 

Borage 233 

Borage Family 106-233 

Bordeaux mixture 203 

Borecole 156 

Botanical classification 105 

Brussels sprouts 154 

Buckwheat Family 105-134 

Cabbage 144 

early 145 



Cabbage— Cont'd. t»ag« 

late 147 

storing 149 

diseases 152 

harvesting 146 

hill sowing 148 

insects 152 

manure for 145 

pitting 149 

retarding heading of 146 

rot 152 

sauer kraut 152 

seed raising 150 

seed sowing 147 

setting plants 145 

soil , 145 

varieties 143 

Cabbage Family 105-143 

Calendar, i-onthly 238 

Caraway 232 

Carbon bisulphide 87 

Carrot 174 

cultivation 175 

forcing 178 

gathering 176 

seed 178 

storing 177 

varieties 178 

Catnip 230 

Cauliflow^er 155 

varieties 156 

Celariac 188 

Celery 17S 

bleaching with boards 184 

bleaching with earth 184 

bleaching, time req ilred 

for ..1S7 

digging 1S6 

diseases ....187 

early 179 

handling 183 

late 18( 

marketing: l£i 



248 



INDEX. 



Celery— Ccmt'd. Page 

onions with 182 

planting 181 

storing 186 

seed 187 

varieties 188 

Citron melon 219 

Cbenopodiaceae 137 

Chives 134 

culture 134 

Classification of Vegetables. . 104 

Clover Family 105-163 

Cold Climate Vegetables 104 

Cold frames (see greenhouses) 65 
Cold frames, for early spring 

use 66 

sash for 78 

Commercial fertilizers 21 

Compositae 223 

Compost heap 21 

Convolvulaceae 189 

Corn 109 

classes of .109 

cultivation 110 

curing seed 112 

cutting off tassels 113 

diseases 101 

insects 113 

marketing Ill 

pop 112 

preserving 113 

smut 113 

varieties run out 112 

Coriander 233 

varieties Ill 

Corrosive for Potato Scab.... 201 

Cress 161 

water 160 

Crucifereae 143 

Cucumber 219 

cultivation 219 

gathering the crop 220 

insects 222 

salting 221 

se( d 222 

starting in cold frames. .. .221 

varieties ^ 222 

Cucurbitaceae 210 



Page 

Cultivation, general 29-33-35 



Dandelion 227 

Dill 233 

Diseases — 

anthracnose of bean 168 

beet scab 140 

blight or rust of celery 18S 

club root of cabbage 152 

leaf blight of celery 187 

lettuce mildew 226 

potato blight 202 

potato scab 200 

smut of corn 113 

Egg plant 203 

Endive 227 

Fennel .230 

Formaline for Potato Scab... 202 

Frost Hardy Vegetables 105 

Frost Tender Vegetables 104 

Fungi .,.106 

Garden herbs 229 

Garlic, common 132 

Glass structures 65 

Germinating apparatus 56 

Germination, conditions for 

successful 42 

Gourd 211 

Gourd Family 105-210 

Goosefoot Family 105-137 

Gramineae 109 

Grass Family 105-109 

Greenhouse hotbed 71 

Greenhouses 74 

boxes 81 

glass 88 

glazing 84 

heating ^ 77 

lean-to 73 

mats 78 

miscellaneous notes on 78 

radiating surface 77 

sash 78 

shading 82 

shutters 78 

soil 81 

substitutes for glass 81 

temperature 7V 



INDEX. 



249 



Greenhouses— Cont'd. Page 

ventilation 

watering 

Ground cherry 208 

Hardening off of plants 50 

Herbs , 229 

Horseradish . 159 

Hotbeds (see also greenhouses) 66 

Hotbeds 66 

manure for 67 

early spring use 67 

fire 69 

sash for "8 

shutters for 78 

mats for 78 

Humus 10-14 

Implements 35 

combined drills and cultiva- 
tors 37 

dibbers 38 

hand 36 

horse 36 

marker 38 

plank drag 39 

potato diggers 39 

potato hoe 39 

scuffle hoe 39 

seed drills 37 

spray pumps 39 

Insecticides 85 

application of 88 

carbon bisulphide 87 

kerosene emulsion 87 

London purple 86 

Paris green 86 

pyrethrum 85 

tobacco 86 

Insects 85 

aphis 99 

bean weevil 101 

cabbage flea beetle 98 

cabbage lice 100 

cabbage worms 90 

catching 88 

celery caterpillar 100 

chinch bug 101 

cucumber beetle 95 

cut worms 93 



Insects — Cont'd. Page 

corn moth 100 

leaf lice 99 

maggots 97 

May beetle 96 

parsley worm 100 

potato beetle 89 

pea weevil 101 

squash bug 103 

squash vine borer 102 

tassel worm 100 

white grub 96 

wire worms 93 

Irrigation 8 

acre inch of water 10 

amount of water needed. ... 10 

application of water 11 

cultivation as an aid to. . . . 9 

humus, an aid to 10 

pumping water for 10 

reservoirs 11 

rules for 11 

storage capacity for 10 

sub-irrigation . 12 

temperature of water 11 

Kale 156 

Kerosene emulsion 87 

Kitchen garden 53 

Kohl-rabi 157 

varieties 157 

Labiatae 229 

Lavender 230 

Leeks 133 

cultivation 133 

varieties 134 

Luguminosae 163 

Lettuce 223 

cultivation 223 

mildew 226 

varieties 225 

Lilaceae 114 

Lily Family 105-114 

Lima beans 166 

London purple 86 

Malvaceae 171 

Manure pile 20 

Manure, hotbed 67 

Manures 14 



250 



INDEX. 



Manures— Cont'd. Page 

action of 1^ 

animal 18 

commercial 21 

effect 25 

composition of 

composition of farm 16 

compost heap 21 

cow 

for early and late crops . . 26 

for leguminous crops 27 

ground blood 22 

ground bones 22 

heating of 19 

hen 19 

horse 19 

humus I'* 

Kainit 2^ 

land plaster 25 

lime 25 

liquid 28 

mixing 20 

most valuable element in. . . 14 

nitrate of soda 23 

salt 15-24 

sheep 20 

sulphate of ammonia 24 

superphosphates 24 

swine 20 

tankage 22 

use of fresh 26 

wood ashes 24 

Mallow Family 105-171 

Manuring growing crops 27 

Martyniaceae 210 

Martynia 210 

culture 210 

Martynia Family 105-210 

Melon, musk 216 

culture 216 

varieties 217 

Melon, preserving 217 

Melon, water 218 

culture 219 

varieties 219 

Mint 229 

Mint Family 105-229 

^^ixing varieties 63 



Page 

Morning Glory Family ... 105-189 

Monthly calendar 288 

Mulching \) 

Mushrooms 106 

native species of 107 

Novelties 58 

Okra 171 

varieties 171 

Onions for home garden 130 

Onions 120 

cultivation 123 

keeping 125 

land for 121 

marketing 131 

perennial 131 

potato 131 

scallions 124 

sets 125 

seed 131 

sowing seed 122 

storing 125 

top 131 

transplanting 128 

varieties 131 

Oyster plant 226 

Parsnip Family 105-171 

Parsley * 178 

culture 174 

varieties 174 

Parsnip 172 

culture 172 

varieties 173 

Paris green 8G 

Peas 168 

culture 169 

canning of 170 

varieties 170 

Peppers 209 

culture 209 

varieties 209 

Peppermint 231 

Pie plant . . .135 

Plowing 31 

subsoil 31 

Pollenizing flowers 61 

Polygooaceae 134 



Page 

Potato Family 105-190 

Potatoes 190 

blight .....202 

digging 195 

diseases 200 

early planting 194 

insects 199 

main crop 194 

manuring ...192 

origin 191 

pitting 196 

propagation, notes on 199 

"running out" of.. 193 

saving seed 193 

scab 200 

sets or *'seeds" 193 

soil 192 

starch 198 

use for seed of scabby 201 

varieties 198 

Protection to newly planted 
seeds against insects.... 46 
against crows and gophers. 46 

Pumnkins 215 

Pyrethrum 85 

Radishes 101 

culture 161 

varieties 162 

Rhubarb 135 

culture 135 

forcing 136 

varieties 137 

Ridging land 33 

Rotating of manures 28 

Rotation of crops 13 

reasons for 13 

Rue 233 

Rue Family 106-233 

Rutaceae 233 

Rutabagas 157 

Sage 231 

Sauer kraut 152 

Savory, winter 232 

Shallots 133 

Seed 55 



:. -51 

Seeds— Cont*^ Page 

curing 57 

germinating apparatus .... 56 
germinating standards ....237 

stock 58 

storing 57 

testing 55 

Seed sowing 42 

depth 42 

time 43 

firming by feet 45 

in stiff soils 43 

with machine 44 

by hand 45 

Seedmen's humbugs 58 

Seedmen's specialties 58 

Seed tables 234-237 

amount for acre 236 

longevity 235 

purity standards 237 

number of seeds in an ounce.234 

time to germinate 236 

weight of seeds 234 

Seeds, pedigrees of * . 55 

novelties « . /t' 58 

Solanaceae 190 

Soils 8 

for early crops 8 

for late crops 8 

elements necessary 14 

elements lacking in 14 

Spearmint 232 

Spinach ^ 141 

culture 142 

varieties 143 

Squash , 211 

cultivation 212 

harvesting 213 

pollenizing flowers 211 

storing 213 

varieties 214 

Sunflower Family 105-243 

Strawberry tomato 208 

culture 209 

Sub-irrigation 12 

Subsoiling 31 

Summer savory 232 

Sweet basil 231 

Sweet marjoram 233 



252 



INDEX. 



Page 



Sweet Potato 189 

Swiss chard 141 

Thinning plants 46 

Thyme 232 

Tillage, garden 29 

general 33 

Tomato, prolonging season.. 207 

Tomato 204 

cultivation 204 

diseases 207 

insects 207 

in severe locations 206 

land for 204 

propagation 204 

pruning 205 

saving seed 207 

training 205 

transplanting 205 

varieties 207 

Tobacco 86 

Transplanting 47 

avoiding 47 

conditions of success 47 



1 Transplanting — Cont'd. Page 

shortening the tops in 48 

digging plants for 48 

firming the soil in 49 

with tomato cans 51 

Turnip 157 

culture 158 

rutabaga 159 

varieties 159 

Umbellifereae .171-232 

Varieties, development of... 58 

mixing of 63 

distance between 63 

Vegetable oyster (see sal- 
sify) 226 

Vitality of seeds 235 

Vegetables, composition of.. 15 
Warm Climate Vegetables. . .104 

Weeds 30 

cultivation to kill 29 

killing of 29 

prevention of 29 

seeds in manure 30 

Winter Savory 232 

Weights of seeds 234 



r 



MAY 3 1905 



